The Global 6G Market
報告摘要
Sixth-generation mobile communications is on course for commercial launch around 2030, with specifications expected to be frozen in 2028 and the first interoperable systems appearing the following year. The build-out that follows will be the longest and most capital-intensive in the industry's history, and unusually for a new generation, its commercial shape is already being contested before any deployable equipment exists.
Three characteristics separate 6G from its predecessors. It is AI-native rather than AI-assisted, with learned models embedded at the physical layer itself; the industry is currently divided over whether that yields a modest efficiency improvement or a genuine doubling of the capacity available from existing spectrum. It adds integrated sensing and communication, so that the same radio hardware carrying traffic also images and positions its environment, giving operators a capability to sell that has no equivalent in earlier generations. And it introduces reconfigurable intelligent surfaces, shifting coverage economics away from cell densification toward engineered propagation environments.
The structure of the opportunity shifts accordingly. Services overtake infrastructure as the dominant revenue pool, as operators outsource network operations and distributed inference becomes a standing feature of network traffic rather than an emerging one. Component and materials value concentrates in the categories tied to physical-layer difficulty rather than to volume: radio frequency front ends, sub-terahertz semiconductors, thermal management and reconfigurable surfaces. Device volume is dominated by consumer and industrial IoT, while smartphones and their successor form factors continue to carry a disproportionate share of device value.
Two forces now shape the outlook more than technology does. The first is industrial policy. An allied 6G partnership was launched in July 2026, US federal spectrum policy is clearing the 7.125-7.4 GHz band for commercial use, and coordinated positions in standards bodies raise the prospect of two partially divergent technology stacks. The second is capital discipline. The 5G experience left operators with returns well below expectation, and the industry's response is to reposition the base station as a monetisable compute asset rather than as a radio transmission point alone.
The principal risks are asymmetric. Spectral efficiency gains of the magnitude some vendors now claim would reduce the number of physical sites required, compressing infrastructure volumes even as software and services revenues rise. Standards fragmentation along geopolitical lines would erode the manufacturing scale on which the entire cost trajectory depends. Neither risk is currently resolvable from published evidence, and both should be treated as live.
The Global 6G Market 2027-2047 is a comprehensive technical and commercial analysis of sixth-generation mobile communications, covering the full value chain from semiconductor materials and advanced packaging through radio systems, base stations and non-terrestrial networks to devices, applications and services. The report provides granular twenty-one-year forecasts segmented by infrastructure, devices, components and materials, and services, with additional breakdowns by application vertical, device category, component category, region and base station type, and dedicated forecasts for reconfigurable intelligent surfaces and thermal management materials.
Analysis extends well beyond conventional market sizing. The report examines the AI-RAN architecture dispute now dividing the principal infrastructure vendors, including the merchant-GPU versus custom-silicon question and its consequences for base station bills of material; the emergence of integrated sensing and communication as a specified capability across ETSI, 3GPP and ITU-R; and the geopolitical restructuring of the supply chain following the formation of an allied 6G partnership.
Technology coverage includes sub-terahertz radio systems, compound semiconductors, phased array antennas, advanced packaging, MIMO evolution, and zero-energy devices and battery elimination. The materials chapters address low-loss dielectrics, metamaterials and metasurfaces, thermal management and solid-state cooling, energy harvesting and self-powering, and the full family of reconfigurable intelligent surface architectures including beyond-diagonal, simultaneously transmitting and reflecting, stacked and flexible intelligent metasurfaces, together with manufacturing processes, testing methods and cost structure. A dedicated section covers optical wireless communications, free-space optics, optical RIS and metalenses, photonics-defined radio and terahertz waveguides.
The report profiles sixty-six companies across infrastructure, semiconductors, materials, metasurfaces, photonics, test and measurement, and network operations, and includes development roadmaps by country, spectrum allocation and regulatory analysis, standardisation status across 3GPP, ITU-R and ETSI, and a full statement of research methodology and sources.
The study is intended for equipment vendors, semiconductor and materials suppliers, network operators, investors and policymakers requiring a defensible view of where value accrues across the 6G build-out.
Contents include:
Executive Summary — the 6G market in 2025-2026; market drivers, trends and constraints; key conclusions; global market revenues to 2047 by infrastructure, devices, components and services; base station, RIS, thermal management, application, device, component and service forecasts; regional analysis; forecast extension to 2047
Introduction — what 6G is; differentiators from 5G; use cases and requirements; rollout timeline; technology interdependencies; global trends including standards bifurcation risk and ISAC convergence
6G Radio Systems — spectrum bands and allocation; sub-terahertz propagation; waveforms and modulation; transceiver architectures; ADC/DAC constraints; RF front-end design
Base Stations and Non-Terrestrial Networks — architecture evolution; AI and machine learning integration and the AI-RAN silicon divergence; baseband processing and merchant versus custom silicon; O-RAN fronthaul splits; satellite, HAPS and UAV integration; thermal management imperatives
Semiconductors for 6G — CMOS, SiGe, GaN, GaAs and InP; device scaling; power amplifiers; frequency limits by technology
Phased Array Antennas for 6G — array architectures; beamforming approaches; antenna-in-package; scaling to 1024TRX
Advanced Packaging for 6G — substrates, interconnect, integration approaches and thermal co-design
Materials and Technologies for 6G — low-loss dielectrics; self-healing, self-cleaning and long-life materials; metamaterials and metasurfaces; RIS operating principles, performance and economics; beyond-diagonal RIS; STAR-RIS; stacked and flexible intelligent metasurfaces; RIS manufacturing, testing and cost structure; fibre optics; optical wireless communications, VLC and LiFi; free-space optics; optical RIS and metalenses; optical signal processing and photonics-defined radio; terahertz waveguides; thermal management; passive daytime radiative cooling; self-adaptive and switchable cooling; Janus emitters and anti-Stokes fluorescence; solid-state cooling including thermoelectric, electrocaloric, magnetocaloric and mechanocaloric approaches; smart EM devices
MIMO for 6G — evolution across generations; distributed and cell-free MIMO; holographic MIMO; ultra-massive arrays
Zero Energy Devices and Battery Elimination — ambient backscatter; SWIPT; energy harvesting technologies; self-powering infrastructure
6G Development Roadmaps — national programmes; US federal spectrum policy; regulatory status; global government initiatives and the allied 6G partnership; operator and vendor roadmaps
Company Profiles — 66 profiles including 2Pi Optics, AALTO HAPS, AGC Japan, Alcan Systems, Alibaba China, Alphacore, Ampleon, Anywaves, Apple, Atheraxon, Commscope, Echodyne, Edgehog Advanced Technologies, Ericsson, Fractal Antenna Systems, Freshwave, Fujitsu, Greenerwave, Huawei, HyMet Thermal Interfaces, InterDigital, Kuang-Chi Technologies, Kymeta, Kyocera, LATYS Intelligence, LG Electronics, Lumotive, META, Metaboards, Metalenz, Metamagnetics, Metawave Corporation and more
授權報價
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目錄 Table of Contents
1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 25
1.1 From 1G to 6G 25
1.2 The AI-Native 6G Revolution 28
1.3 Evolution from 5G Networks 29
1.3.1 Limitations with 5G 29
1.3.2 Benefits of 6G 31
1.3.3 Advanced materials in 6G 32
1.3.4 Recent hardware developments 33
1.4 The 6G Market in 2025 34
1.4.1 Regional Market Activity 35
1.4.2 Investment Landscape 35
1.4.3 Market Constraints in 2025 36
1.5 Market outlook for 6G 37
1.5.1 Growth of Mobile Traffic 37
1.5.1.1 Optimistic Scenario 37
1.5.1.2 Conservative Scenario 38
1.5.1.3 Regional Divergence 38
1.5.1.4 Implications for 6G 39
1.5.2 Proliferation in Consumer Technology 40
1.5.2.1 Smartphone Evolution 40
1.5.2.2 Beyond Smartphones 41
1.5.3 Industrial and Enterprise Transformation 41
1.5.4 Economic Competitiveness 42
1.5.5 Sustainability 43
1.5.5.1 Energy Efficiency Imperative 43
1.6 Market drivers and trends 44
1.7 Market challenges and bottlenecks 48
1.7.1 Critical Bottlenecks 49
1.8 Key Conclusions for 6G Communications Systems and Hardware 51
1.9 Roadmap 54
1.9.1 Critical Path Analysis 55
1.10 Global Market Revenues to 2047 56
1.10.1 6G Infrastructure Market by Deployment Location 59
1.10.2 6G Infrastructure Market by Region 60
1.10.3 6G Base Station Market 61
1.10.4 Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS) Market 62
1.10.5 6G Thermal Management Market 62
1.10.6 6G Application Markets 64
1.10.7 6G Device Market Forecast by Category 67
1.10.8 6G Components & Materials Market 68
1.10.9 6G Services Market 70
1.10.10 Forecast Extension to 2047 73
1.11 Applications 74
1.11.1 Connected Autonomous Vehicle Systems 74
1.11.2 Next Generation Industrial Automation 76
1.11.3 Healthcare Solutions 77
1.11.4 Immersive Extended Reality Experiences 79
1.12 Geographical Markets for 6G 79
1.12.1 North America 79
1.12.2 Asia Pacific 81
1.12.2.1 China 81
1.12.2.2 Japan 82
1.12.2.3 South Korea 83
1.12.2.4 India 83
1.12.3 Europe 84
1.13 Main Market Players 84
1.14 6G Projects by Country 86
1.15 Sustainability in 6G 87
2 INTRODUCTION 88
2.1 What is 6G? 88
2.2 Evolving Mobile Communications 90
2.3 5G deployment 91
2.3.1 Motivation for 6G 92
2.3.2 Growth in Mobile Data Traffic 93
2.3.2.1 Growth of Mobile Traffic Slows 94
2.3.3 Future of Traffic 95
2.3.3.1 Continued Exponential Growth (Optimist View) 95
2.3.3.2 Structural Deceleration (Realist View) 96
2.3.3.3 Plateau and Decline (Pessimist View) 96
2.3.4 Traffic Growth Plateau in China 97
2.3.5 Video Streaming 98
2.4 Multi-Dimensional Value Proposition 100
2.5 Potential 6G High-Value Applications 101
2.5.1 Holographic Communication 101
2.5.2 Persistent AR Overlays 101
2.5.3 Cooperative Perception for Autonomous Systems 102
2.5.4 Real-Time Digital Twins 102
2.6 Applications and Required Bandwidths 104
2.7 Artificial Intelligence's impact on network traffic 105
2.7.1 AI Workload: On-Device vs Cloud 107
2.8 Autonomous vehicles 109
2.8.1 Autonomous Vehicle Communications 109
2.8.2 Cooperative Perception 110
2.8.3 Vehicle platooning 110
2.9 6G Rollout Timeline 112
2.9.1 Regional Deployment Timeline 113
2.10 6G Spectrum 114
2.10.1 6G Candidate Spectrum Bands 114
2.10.2 Bands vs Bandwidth 116
2.10.3 Bandwidth-Coverage Tradeoff 117
2.10.4 6G Spectrum and Deployment 117
2.10.4.1 Economic Deployment Model 118
2.10.4.1.1 Phase 1: Evolutionary 6G (2029-2034) 118
2.10.4.1.2 Phase 2: Revolutionary 6G (2034-2040+) 119
2.11 Frequencies Beyond 100GHz 120
2.11.1 Atmospheric Absorption Windows 121
2.11.2 Sub-THz Application Viability 122
2.11.3 6G Applications 122
2.12 Technology Interdependencies 125
2.13 Global Trends 125
3 6G RADIO SYSTEMS 127
3.1 Technical Targets for High Data-Rate 6G Radios 127
3.2 6G Transceiver Architecture 128
3.3 Technical Elements in 6G Radio Systems 129
3.4 Bandwidth and Modulation 130
3.5 Bandwidth Requirements for Supporting 100 Gbps - 1 Tbps Radios 130
3.5.1 Practical Bandwidth Allocation 131
3.6 Bandwidth and MIMO 131
3.7 6G Radio Performance 132
3.8 Beyond 100 Gbps 132
3.9 Radio Link Range vs System Gain 133
3.10 Hardware Gap 134
3.11 Saturated Output Power vs Frequency 135
3.12 Power consumption 136
3.12.1 Power Consumption of PA Scale with Frequency 138
3.12.2 Power Consumption on the Transceiver Side (1, 2, 3) 139
3.12.2.1 Receive Chain Power Analysis 139
4 BASE STATIONS AND NON-TERRESTRIAL NETWORKS 143
4.1 UM-MIMO and Vanishing Base Stations 144
4.1.1 Sequence 144
4.1.2 RIS-Enabled, Self-Powered 6G UM-MIMO Base Station Design 145
4.1.2.1 System Architecture 146
4.1.2.2 Power Management 147
4.1.2.3 Performance Characteristics 148
4.1.3 Base Station Power and Cooling 148
4.1.3.1 Power Consumption Drivers 148
4.1.3.2 Economic and Environmental Impact 149
4.1.3.3 Solutions and Mitigation Strategies 149
4.1.4 Semiconductor Technologies for 6G Base Stations 149
4.1.4.1 Power Amplifiers 150
4.1.4.2 Transceivers and Beamformers 151
4.1.4.3 Baseband Processing 151
4.1.4.4 RIS Control 151
4.1.5 Base Station and MIMO Technology Advances 152
4.1.5.1 Integrated Active Antenna Systems 152
4.1.5.2 Open RAN Architecture 152
4.1.5.3 AI and Machine Learning Integration 152
4.1.5.4 Network Slicing 154
4.1.5.5 Edge Computing Integration 154
4.2 Satellites and Drones 154
4.2.1 How Satellites Benefit from 6G 154
4.2.2 How 6G Benefits from Satellites 154
4.2.3 Drone Integration Benefits 155
4.3 Internet of Drones 155
4.3.1 Network Architecture 155
4.3.2 Technical Challenges 156
4.3.3 Market Outlook 156
4.4 High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS) 157
4.4.1 HAPS Platforms 157
4.4.2 Communications Payload 157
4.4.3 Advantages 158
4.4.4 Challenges 158
4.4.5 Status and Timeline 158
4.5 6G Non-Terrestrial Networks (NTN) 159
4.5.1 Connectivity Gap 159
4.5.1.1 Dimensions of the Gap 159
4.5.1.2 Quantification 160
4.5.1.3 Regional Characteristics 161
4.5.2 Development of LEO NTNs 161
4.5.2.1 Major Constellations 161
4.5.2.2 Technology Evolution 163
4.5.3 NTN Technologies 163
4.5.3.1 Geostationary Orbit (GEO) Satellites 164
4.5.3.2 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites 164
4.5.3.3 Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites 164
4.5.3.4 Very Low Earth Orbit (VLEO) 164
4.5.4 HAPS vs LEO vs GEO 165
4.5.4.1 Deployment Speed and Flexibility 165
4.5.4.2 Operational Complexity 166
4.5.4.3 Coverage Characteristics 166
4.5.4.4 Economic Models 167
4.5.5 Direct to Cell (D2C) 168
4.5.5.1 Technical Challenge 168
4.5.5.2 Satellite Solutions 168
4.5.5.3 Performance Expectations 168
4.5.5.4 Market Positioning 169
4.5.6 NTNs for D2C 169
4.5.6.1 Link Budget Components 169
4.5.6.2 HAPS Analysis 170
4.5.6.3 LEO Analysis 170
4.5.6.4 MEO and GEO Analysis 170
4.5.7 Technologies for Non-Terrestrial Networks 170
4.5.7.1 Satellite Bus and Platform Technologies 171
4.5.7.2 Phased Array Antennas 171
4.5.7.3 Satellite Payload Processing 171
4.5.7.4 Inter-Satellite Optical Links 171
4.5.7.5 Ground Segment Infrastructure 171
5 SEMICONDUCTORS FOR 6G 173
5.1 Introduction 173
5.2 RF Transistors Performance 174
5.3 Si-based Semiconductors 174
5.3.1 CMOS 174
5.3.1.1 Bulk vs SOI 175
5.3.1.2 SiGe 176
5.4 GaAs and GaN 177
5.4.1 GaN's Opportunity in 6G 177
5.4.2 GaN-on-Si, SiC or Diamond for RF 178
5.4.3 GaAs Positioning in 6G 179
5.4.4 State-of-the-Art GaAs Based Amplifier 180
5.4.5 GaAs vs GaN for RF Power Amplifiers 180
5.4.6 Power Amplifier Technology Benchmarking 181
5.5 InP (Indium Phosphide) 182
5.5.1 InP HEMT vs InP HBT 182
5.5.1.1 InP Opportunities for 6G 183
5.5.2 Heterogeneous Integration of InP with SiGe BiCMOS 183
5.6 Semiconductor Challenges for THz Communications 185
5.6.1 Mitigation Strategies 185
5.7 Semiconductor Supply Chain 186
6 PHASE ARRAY ANTENNAS FOR 6G 188
6.1 Key 6G Antenna Requirements 188
6.2 Challenges in mmWave Phased Array Systems 188
6.2.1 Primary Challenges 188
6.3 Antenna Architectures 190
6.4 Challenges in 6G Antennas 190
6.5 Power and Antenna Array Size 192
6.6 5G Phased Array Antenna 193
6.7 Antenna Manufacturers 193
6.8 Technology Benchmarking 195
6.9 GHz Phased Array 195
6.10 Antenna Types 197
6.11 Phased Array Modules 197
6.11.1 Technology Readiness Assessment 198
7 ADVANCED PACKAGING FOR 6G 199
7.1 Evolution Drivers 199
7.2 Packaging Requirements 199
7.2.1 Electrical Performance Demands 200
7.2.2 Thermal Management Imperatives 200
7.3 Antenna Packaging Technology Options 200
7.3.1 Technology Selection Criteria 200
7.4 mmWave Antenna Integration 201
7.4.1 Antenna-on-Board (AoB) 201
7.4.2 Antenna-in-Package (AiP) 201
7.4.3 Antenna-on-Chip (AoC) 202
7.4.4 Performance Analysis 202
7.5 Next Generation Phased Array Targets 203
7.5.1 System-Level Requirements Translation 203
7.5.2 Technology Roadmap Implications 204
7.6 Antenna Packaging vs Operational Frequency 204
7.6.1 Frequency-Dependent Loss Mechanisms 204
7.7 Integration Technologies 205
7.7.1 Performance vs Cost 205
7.7.2 Flexibility vs Optimization 206
7.8 Approaches to Integrate InP on CMOS 206
7.8.1 Integration Challenge 206
7.8.2 Die-to-Die Hybrid Assembly 206
7.8.3 Wafer-Level Bonding 207
7.8.4 Epitaxial Transfer 207
7.9 Antenna Integration Challenges 208
7.9.1 Dimensional Tolerance Requirements 208
7.9.2 Thermal Management Scaling 208
7.9.3 Manufacturing Yield Economics 208
7.10 Substrate Materials for AiP 209
7.11 Antenna on Chip (AoC) for 6G 210
7.12 Evolution of Hardware Components from 5G to 6G 211
8 MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR 6G 212
8.1 Material Challenge Domains 212
8.1.1 Material Property Interdependencies 212
8.2 6G ZED Compounds and Carbon Allotropes 213
8.3 Thermal Cooling and Conductor Materials 213
8.4 Thermal Metamaterials for 6G 214
8.5 Ionogels for 6G 215
8.6 Advanced Heat Shielding and Thermal Insulation 216
8.7 Low-Loss Dielectrics 217
8.8 Self-Healing, Self-Cleaning and Long-Life Materials 218
8.9 Optical and Sub-THz 6G Materials 218
8.10 Materials for Metamaterial-Based 6G RIS 219
8.11 Electrically-Functionalized Transparent Glass for 6G OTA, T-RIS 219
8.11.1 Transparent Conductive Oxides (TCO) 219
8.11.2 Metal Meshes 220
8.11.3 Printed Silver Nanowires 220
8.11.4 Graphene 220
8.12 Low-Loss Materials for mmWave and THz 221
8.13 Inorganic Compounds 223
8.13.1 Overview 223
8.13.2 Materials 223
8.14 Elements 224
8.14.1 Overview 224
8.14.2 Materials 225
8.15 Organic Compounds 225
8.15.1 Overview 225
8.15.2 Materials 226
8.16 6G Dielectrics 226
8.16.1 Overview 227
8.16.2 Companies 227
8.16.3 SWOT Analysis 227
8.17 Metamaterials 228
8.17.1 Overview 228
8.17.2 Metamaterials for RIS in Telecommunication 228
8.17.2.1 RIS Operating Principles 229
8.17.3 RIS Performance and Economics 229
8.17.3.1 Passive Beamforming 230
8.17.3.2 Hybrid Beamforming with RIS 231
8.17.3.3 Adaptive Beamforming Techniques 232
8.17.4 Beyond-Diagonal RIS Architectures 232
8.17.5 Simultaneously Transmitting and Reflecting RIS (STAR-RIS) 233
8.17.6 Stacked Intelligent Metasurfaces and Wave-Domain Signal Processing 234
8.17.7 Flexible and Morphing Intelligent Metasurfaces 234
8.17.8 RIS Manufacturing, Testing and Cost Structure 234
8.17.9 Applications 236
8.17.9.1 Reconfigurable Antennas 236
8.17.9.2 Wireless Sensing 236
8.17.9.3 Wi-Fi/Bluetooth 236
8.17.9.4 5G and 6G Metasurfaces for Wireless Communications 236
8.17.9.4.1 5G Applications 237
8.17.9.4.2 6G Evolution 237
8.17.9.5 Hypersurfaces 237
8.17.9.6 Active Material Patterning 237
8.17.9.7 Optical ENZ Metamaterials 238
8.17.9.8 Liquid Crystal Polymers 238
8.17.9.8.1 LCP Applications in 6G 238
8.18 Thermal Management 240
8.18.1 Overview 240
8.18.2 Thermal Materials and Structures for 6G 240
8.18.2.1 Advanced Ceramics 240
8.18.2.2 Diamond-based Materials 240
8.18.2.3 Graphene and Carbon Nanotubes 241
8.18.2.4 Phase Change Materials (PCMs) 241
8.18.2.5 Advanced Polymers 242
8.18.2.6 Metal Matrix Composites 242
8.18.2.7 Two-Dimensional Materials 242
8.18.2.8 Nanofluid Coolants 243
8.18.2.9 Thermal Metamaterials 243
8.18.2.10 Hydrogels 243
8.18.2.11 Aerogels 243
8.18.2.12 Pyrolytic Graphite 244
8.18.2.13 Thermoelectrics 244
8.18.2.13.1 Cooling Applications 244
8.18.2.13.2 Energy Harvesting 245
8.18.3 Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling 246
8.18.4 Self-Adaptive and Switchable Radiative Cooling 246
8.18.5 Janus Emitters and Anti-Stokes Fluorescence Cooling 247
8.19 Graphene and 2D Materials 247
8.19.1 Overview 247
8.19.2 Applications 248
8.19.2.1 Supercapacitors, LiC and Pseudocapacitors 248
8.19.2.2 Graphene Transistors 248
8.19.2.3 Graphene THz Device Structures 249
8.20 Fiber Optics 249
8.20.1 Overview 249
8.20.2 Materials and Applications in 6G 250
8.20.2.1 Key Optical Materials 250
8.20.2.2 6G Fiber-Wireless Architecture 250
8.21 Optical Wireless Communications and Optronic Hardware 251
8.21.1 Visible Light Communications and LiFi 251
8.21.2 Free-Space Optics for Backhaul and Non-Terrestrial Links 251
8.21.3 Optical RIS and Metalenses 252
8.21.4 Optical Signal Processing and Photonics-Defined Radio 252
8.21.5 Terahertz Waveguides and Dielectric Cable 253
8.22 Smart EM Devices 254
8.22.1 Overview 254
8.22.2 Technical Challenges 254
8.22.3 Current Status 254
8.23 Photoactive Materials 254
8.23.1 Overview 254
8.23.2 Applications in 6G 255
8.23.2.1 Optically-Controlled RIS 255
8.24 Silicon Carbide 255
8.24.1 Overview 255
8.24.2 Applications in 6G 256
8.24.2.1 GaN-on-SiC Power Amplifiers 256
8.24.2.2 Thermal Management 256
8.24.2.3 RF Substrates 256
8.25 Phase-Change Materials 256
8.25.1 Overview 256
8.25.2 Applications in 6G 257
8.25.2.1 Reconfigurable Metamaterials 257
8.25.2.2 Reconfigurable Antennas 257
8.25.2.3 RF Switches 257
8.25.2.3.1 Commercialization Challenges 257
8.26 Vanadium Dioxide 258
8.26.1 Overview 258
8.26.2 Applications in 6G 258
8.26.2.1 Ultrafast RF Switches 258
8.26.2.2 Thermally-Triggered Devices 258
8.26.2.3 Tunable Metamaterials 258
8.27 Micro-mechanics, MEMS and Microfluidics 259
8.27.1 Overview 259
8.27.2 Applications in 6G 259
8.27.2.1 MEMS RF Switches 259
8.27.2.2 MEMS Tunable Capacitors 259
8.27.2.3 MEMS Phase Shifters 259
8.27.2.4 Microfluidic Cooling 259
8.27.2.5 Commercial Status 260
8.28 Solid State Cooling 260
8.28.1 Overview 260
8.28.2 Thermoelectric Cooling 261
8.28.3 Electrocaloric and Magnetocaloric Cooling 261
8.28.4 Mechanocaloric Cooling: Elastocaloric, Barocaloric and Multicaloric 261
9 MIMO FOR 6G 262
9.1 MIMO in Wireless Communications 263
9.1.1 MIMO Evolution Timeline 263
9.2 Challenges with mMIMO 264
9.2.1 Channel State Information Acquisition 264
9.2.2 Computational Complexity 264
9.2.3 Hardware Impairments 264
9.2.4 Cost and Power Consumption 264
9.3 Distributed MIMO 265
9.3.1 Architecture 265
9.3.2 Benefits 265
9.3.3 Challenges 265
9.4 Cell-free Massive MIMO (Large-Scale Distributed MIMO) 266
9.4.1 Concept 266
9.4.2 Network Topology 266
9.4.3 Performance Benefits 266
9.5 6G Massive MIMO 267
9.5.1 Frequency-Specific Factors 267
9.5.2 Processing Architecture 267
9.5.3 AI/ML Integration 267
9.5.4 Deployment Strategies 267
9.6 Cell-Free MIMO 268
9.6.1 Cellular System Limitations 268
9.6.2 Cell-Free Solutions 268
9.6.3 Economic Considerations 268
9.6.4 Interpretation 269
9.7 Benefits and Challenges of Cell-Free MIMO 269
9.7.1 Benefits 269
9.7.2 Challenges 269
9.8 Cell-Free Massive MIMO 270
9.8.1 Overview 270
9.8.2 Network MIMO (CoMP - Coordinated Multi-Point) 271
9.8.3 Cell-Free mMIMO Distinctive Features 271
9.8.4 Transition Strategy 271
9.8.5 Commercial Readiness 272
9.8.6 Market Projections 272
10 ZERO ENERGY DEVICES (ZED) AND BATTERY ELIMINATION 273
10.1 Overview 273
10.1.1 Critical Success Factors 274
10.1.2 Market Impact 274
10.2 ZED-Related Technology 274
10.2.1 Technology Convergence 275
10.2.2 Drivers for ZED and Battery-Free 275
10.2.2.1 Operational Impossibility 275
10.2.2.2 Economic Imperative 275
10.2.2.3 Environmental Sustainability 275
10.2.2.4 Reliability and Autonomy 276
10.2.2.5 Lessons from Deployments 276
10.3 Zero-Energy and Battery-Free 6G 277
10.3.1 Infrastructure 277
10.3.2 Client Devices 277
10.4 Electricity consumption of wireless networks 279
10.4.1 Network Energy Consumption Trends 279
10.4.2 Energy Harvesting 279
10.5 Technologies 281
10.5.1 On-Board Harvesting Technologies Compared and Prioritized 281
10.5.2 6G ZED Design Approaches 282
10.5.3 Device Architecture 283
10.5.3.1 System Integration 284
10.5.3.2 Architecture Variants 284
10.5.4 Energy Harvesting 284
10.5.4.1 Power Management Optimization 284
10.5.4.2 Transducer Efficiency 285
10.5.4.3 Impedance Matching 285
10.5.5 Device Battery-Free Storage 285
10.5.5.1 Supercapacitors 286
10.5.5.2 Lithium-Ion Capacitors (LIC) 286
10.5.5.3 Selection Guidelines 287
10.5.5.4 "Massless Energy" for ZED 287
10.5.5.4.1 Performance 287
10.5.5.4.2 6G ZED Applications 287
10.5.5.4.3 Challenges 288
10.5.5.4.4 Status 288
10.5.6 Ambient Backscatter Communications AmBC, Crowd Detectable CD-ZED, SWIPT 289
10.5.6.1 Performance Characteristics 289
10.5.6.2 6G Integration 289
10.5.6.3 Crowd Detectable CD-ZED 289
10.5.6.4 Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT) 289
10.5.6.5 Performance 290
10.6 6G ZED Materials and Technologies 291
10.6.1 Metamaterials 291
10.6.2 IRS (Intelligent Reflecting Surfaces) 291
10.6.3 RIS (Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces) 291
10.6.4 Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT) 292
10.6.5 Ambient Backscatter Communications (AmBC) 292
10.6.5.1 Advanced AmBC Techniques 292
10.6.5.2 6G Native Integration 292
10.6.6 Energy Harvesting for 6G 293
10.6.6.1 Photovoltaics 293
10.6.6.1.1 Technology Options 293
10.6.6.1.2 Indoor Optimization 293
10.6.6.2 Ambient RF 294
10.6.6.2.1 Power Availability 294
10.6.6.2.2 Rectifier Technology 294
10.6.6.2.3 Multi-Band Harvesting 294
10.6.6.3 Electrodynamic 295
10.6.6.3.1 Characteristics 295
10.6.6.3.2 Applications 295
10.6.6.4 Piezoelectric materials 295
10.6.6.4.1 Materials 295
10.6.6.4.2 Harvester Designs 295
10.6.6.5 Triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs 296
10.6.6.5.1 Operating Principle 296
10.6.6.5.2 Performance 296
10.6.6.5.3 6G Applications 296
10.6.6.5.4 Challenges 296
10.6.6.6 Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) 297
10.6.6.6.1 Performance 297
10.6.6.6.2 Temperature Sources 297
10.6.6.6.3 6G ZED Applications 297
10.6.6.7 Pyroelectric materials 297
10.6.6.7.1 Mechanism 298
10.6.6.7.2 Performance 298
10.6.6.7.3 Applications 298
10.6.6.7.4 Limitations 298
10.6.6.8 Thermal Hydrovoltaic 298
10.6.6.8.1 Mechanisms 298
10.6.6.8.2 Performance 298
10.6.6.8.3 Status 299
10.6.6.9 Biofuel Cells 299
10.6.6.9.1 Types 299
10.6.6.9.2 Performance 299
10.6.6.9.3 Applications 299
10.6.6.9.4 Challenges 299
10.6.6.9.5 Status 299
10.6.7 Ultra-Low-Power Electronics 300
10.6.7.1 Technologies 300
10.6.7.2 Future Targets (2030) 300
10.6.7.3 Design Techniques 301
10.6.7.4 Supercapacitors 301
10.6.7.4.1 Advanced Supercapacitor Technologies 301
10.6.7.5 Hybrid Approaches 301
10.6.7.5.1 Lithium-Ion Capacitors (LIC) 301
10.6.7.5.2 Sodium-Ion Batteries 302
10.6.7.5.3 Lithium Titanate (LTO) Batteries 302
10.6.7.6 Pseudocapacitors 302
10.6.7.6.1 Operating Principle 302
10.6.7.6.2 Performance 303
10.6.7.6.3 6G ZED Applications 303
10.6.7.6.4 Status 303
10.6.7.6.5 Research Directions 303
11 6G DEVELOPMENT ROADMAPS 304
11.1 Spectrum for 6G 305
11.2 US Federal Spectrum 306
11.3 Regulatory Status (2025) 307
11.4 Standalone vs Non-Standalone Rollout 308
11.5 Open RAN for 6G 309
11.5.1 Regional Open RAN Positioning 310
11.6 Competition for Spectrum in Europe 311
11.6.1 Key Challenges 312
11.7 Global 6G Government Initiatives 312
11.7.1 Program Effectiveness Factors 314
11.8 6G Development Roadmap - South Korea 316
11.8.1 Technology Focus Areas 317
11.8.2 South Korea - mmWave Challenges 317
11.9 6G Development Roadmap – Japan 318
11.9.1 Beyond 5G Program Structure 318
11.9.2 Deployment Timeline and Market Strategy 319
11.10 Funding Models to Research the Next Mobile Communication Infrastructure 320
11.11 6G Development Roadmap – US 322
12 COMPANY PROFILES 326 (66 company profiles)
13 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 415
14 REFERENCES 416
圖表清單 List of Tables & Figures
List of Tables
Table 1. Evolution of Mobile Wireless Communications from 1G to 6G 25
Table 2. Key Limitations with 5G Networks. 30
Table 3. Key Differentiators and Benefits of 6G vs 5G. 31
Table 4. Advanced Materials Enabling 6G Communications. 32
Table 5. Notable 6G Hardware Demonstrations (2024-2025). 33
Table 6. 6G Market Readiness Indicators (2025). 34
Table 7. Global 6G R&D Investment by Source (2023-2025). 35
Table 8. Global Mobile Data Traffic Growth (2018-2025). 37
Table 9. Mobile Data Traffic Forecasts - Competing Scenarios (2026-2047). 38
Table 10. Smartphone Capability Evolution Through 6G Era. 40
Table 11. Enterprise 6G Market Forecast by Vertical (2030-2047), 42
Table 12. Government 6G Strategy Approaches by Country. 42
Table 13. Network Energy Consumption Evolution and 6G Targets. 43
Table 14. Sustainability Metrics 44
Table 15. Primary Market Drivers for 6G Adoption (2026-2047). 44
Table 16. Critical Challenges and Bottlenecks for 6G Market Development. 48
Table 17. Sub-THz Power Amplifier Technology Gap Analysis. 50
Table 18. 6G Hardware Technology Readiness Roadmap 56
Table 19. Global 6G Market Forecast Summary (2026-2047) 58
Table 20. 6G Infrastructure Market by Deployment Location (2030, 2033, 2036). 60
Table 21. 6G Infrastructure Market by Region (2030, 2033, 2036) 60
Table 22. 6G Base Station Market (2029-2047) 61
Table 23. Reconfigurable Intelligent Surfaces (RIS) Market Forecast (2027-2047) 62
Table 24. 6G Thermal Management Market Forecast (2029-2047) 63
Table 25. 6G Application-Specific Markets (2030-2047). 64
Table 26. 6G Device Market Forecast by Category (2028-2047), Units. 67
Table 27. 6G Components & Materials Market by Technology (2029-2047) 69
Table 28. 6G Services Market (2029-2047) 71
Table 29. Global 6G Market — 2047 Extension Summary by Segment. 74
Table 30. Autonomous Vehicle Connectivity Requirements 75
Table 31. 6G-Connected Autonomous Vehicle Market Forecast. 75
Table 32. 6G Industrial Automation Market by Segment (2036) 76
Table 33. 6G Healthcare Market Forecast (2030-2047). 78
Table 34. XR Experience Tiers and 6G Requirements. 79
Table 35. 6G-Enabled XR Market (2030-2047). 79
Table 36. North America 6G Market Forecast (2026-2047). 79
Table 37. US Operator 6G Investment Profile. 81
Table 38. Asia Pacific 6G Market Forecast by Sub-Region (2036). 81
Table 39. Europe 6G Market Forecast by Major Markets (2036). 84
Table 40. Leading 6G Equipment Vendors. 84
Table 41. Semiconductor Companies for 6G. 85
Table 42. Key Materials and Component Suppliers. 85
Table 43. Major Government-Funded 6G Programs Worldwide 86
Table 44. 6G Sustainability Targets vs. 5G Baseline. 87
Table 45. Defining Characteristics of 6G. 88
Table 46. Common Misconceptions. 89
Table 47. Evolution of Mobile Communications Focus. 90
Table 48. Global 5G Deployment Status (2025). 91
Table 49. 5G Performance - Promised vs. Delivered (2025). 91
Table 50. Application Requirements Exceeding 5G Capabilities. 92
Table 51. Global Mobile Data Traffic Evolution (2015-2025) 93
Table 52. Per Capita Data Usage - Developed Markets (2020-2025). 94
Table 53. China Mobile Data Traffic Evolution (2018-2025). 97
Table 54. Video Streaming Traffic Share Evolution. 98
Table 55. Video Streaming Bandwidth Requirements. 99
Table 56. Applications Requiring >1 Gbps Sustained Bandwidth. 99
Table 57. Comprehensive Application Bandwidth Requirements. 104
Table 58. Net AI Impact on Mobile Data Traffic (2025-2047). 107
Table 59. AI Workload Distribution Evolution. 107
Table 60. Autonomous Vehicle Communication Requirements by Level. 109
Table 61. Autonomous Vehicle 6G Connectivity Market Forecast. 110
Table 62. Platooning Benefits and Requirements. 110
Table 63. Platooning Connectivity Market. 111
Table 64. Key 5G Lessons and 6G Responses 111
Table 65. Comprehensive 6G Development and Deployment Timeline. 112
Table 66. 6G Commercial Launch Timeline by Region. 113
Table 67. 6G Candidate Spectrum Bands. 114
Table 68. Regional Spectrum Priorities for 6G. 116
Table 69. Bandwidth Availability by Frequency Range. 116
Table 70. Achievable Data Rates by Spectrum Allocation. 116
Table 71. Path Loss Comparison Across Frequencies. 117
Table 72. Deployment Strategy by Frequency Band. 118
Table 73. Detailed 5G vs 6G Performance Comparison 120
Table 74. Characteristics of >100 GHz Frequency Bands. 120
Table 75. Atmospheric Windows for Sub-THz Communications. 121
Table 76. Application Suitability for >100 GHz. 122
Table 77. 6G Application Portfolio. 122
Table 78. Core 6G Enabling Technologies. 123
Table 79. 6G Radio System Technical Targets 128
Table 80. 6G Transceiver Component Requirements. 129
Table 81. Bandwidth Requirements for Target Data Rates. 130
Table 82. Spectrum Allocation Scenarios for Extreme Data Rates. 131
Table 83. MIMO Configuration Trade-offs. 131
Table 84. Critical 6G Radio Performance Parameters 132
Table 85. Notable 100+ Gbps Wireless Demonstrations (2023-2025) 133
Table 86. Range vs Frequency Analysis for 6G 134
Table 87. Power Amplifier Output Power vs Frequency 134
Table 88. Semiconductor Technology Comparison for Sub-THz Power Amplifiers 135
Table 89. Power Budget for 140 GHz Base Station Radio Unit 136
Table 90. Power Scaling with Array Size 137
Table 91. PA Efficiency vs Frequency Trend 138
Table 92. Transmission Distance vs Frequency for Fixed Power Budget 139
Table 93. Receiver Power Breakdown by Function 140
Table 94. Power Comparison - 5G mmWave vs 6G Sub-THz 140
Table 95. Terrestrial vs Non-Terrestrial 6G Infrastructure Comparison 143
Table 96. Base Station Power Consumption Evolution and Cooling Requirements 148
Table 97. Critical Semiconductor Technologies for 6G Base Stations 150
Table 98. Drone Network Applications and Requirements 156
Table 99. HAPS Characteristics and Comparison with Alternatives 157
Table 100. Connectivity Gap Analysis by Region (2025) 160
Table 101. Major LEO Constellation Status and Plans (2025) 162
Table 102. Comprehensive NTN Technology Performance Comparison 165
Table 103. Qualitative Feature Comparison - HAPS vs LEO vs GEO 167
Table 104. Link Budget Summary for Direct-to-Cell Scenarios 169
Table 105. Critical NTN Enabling Technologies and Status 172
Table 106. Semiconductor Selection Criteria Priority Matrix 173
Table 107. RF Transistor Technology Benchmark (2025) 174
Table 108. Bulk CMOS vs SOI Comparison 175
Table 109. Advanced CMOS RF Performance by Process Node 175
Table 110. SiGe Technology Evolution for 6G 176
Table 111. Major SiGe BiCMOS Foundries and Capabilities 176
Table 112. Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Properties 177
Table 113. GaN Substrate Comparison 178
Table 114. Best Reported GaN PA Performance (2024-2025) 179
Table 115. GaN Manufacturing Capacity for 6G (2025) 179
Table 116. GaAs Application Opportunities in 6G 179
Table 117. Advanced GaAs Amplifier Performance (2025) 180
Table 118. Direct Technology Comparison - GaAs vs GaN 180
Table 119. Comprehensive PA Technology Comparison at Key 6G Frequencies 181
Table 120. InP Technology State-of-the-Art (2025) 182
Table 121. InP Device Type Comparison 182
Table 122. InP Market Forecast for 6G (2030-2047) 183
Table 123. InP-SiGe Integration Methods 183
Table 124. Leading InP PA Demonstrations (2024-2025) 184
Table 125. Silicon vs III-V Compound Semiconductor Comparison 184
Table 126. Critical Semiconductor Challenges for 6G Sub-THz 185
Table 127. Semiconductor Technology Recommendation by Application 185
Table 128. 6G Semiconductor Supply Chain - Capacity and Constraints (2025) 186
Table 129. 6G Antenna Requirements vs 5G Comparison 188
Table 130. mmWave/Sub-THz Phased Array Challenges and Solutions 189
Table 131. Antenna Element Size vs Frequency 189
Table 132. 6G Antenna Architecture Comparison 190
Table 133. Critical 6G Antenna Design Challenges 190
Table 134. Theoretical vs Practical Antenna Array Gain 191
Table 135. Power-Array Size Trade-off Analysis for 100m Range at 140 GHz 192
Table 136. Commercial 5G mmWave Phased Array Antenna Specifications (2024-2025) 193
Table 137. Major Antenna and Phased Array Module Suppliers for 6G 193
Table 138. Nokia 90 GHz Array Performance Summary 194
Table 139. Comparative Analysis - 28 GHz vs 90 GHz vs 140 GHz Arrays 195
Table 140. 140 GHz Transceiver Module Component Budget (16-element array) 195
Table 141. Semiconductor Technology Selection for 140 GHz Array Components 196
Table 142. Detailed Antenna Element Types for 6G Phased Arrays 197
Table 143. Commercial Readiness Assessment of D-band Phased Arrays (2025) 198
Table 144. 5G to 6G Antenna Module Evolution 199
Table 145. Packaging Technology Selection Matrix for 6G 201
Table 146. Antenna Integration Approach Comparison 202
Table 147. Technology Benchmark 203
Table 148. Next-Generation Phased Array Packaging Targets 204
Table 149. Packaging Technology Viability by Frequency 205
Table 150. Integration Technology Trade-off Matrix 206
Table 151. InP-CMOS Integration Approaches 207
Table 152. AiP vs Discrete Antenna Techniques 209
Table 153. Substrate Material Performance Comparison at 140 GHz 209
Table 154. Manufacturing Technology Comparison 210
Table 155. AoC vs AiP Performance 210
Table 156. Hardware Evolution Comparison. 211
Table 157. 6G Material Requirements vs Current Capabilities 212
Table 158. Low/Zero Expansion Materials for 6G. 213
Table 159. Thermal Management Material Ranking for 6G 213
Table 160. Thermal Management Evolution 5G to 6G 215
Table 161. Ionogel vs Alternatives for Tunable RF 215
Table 162. Thermal Insulation Material Comparison 216
Table 163. Low-Loss Dielectric Material Priority Ranking 217
Table 164. Dielectric Constant (Dk) and Loss Factor (Df) Requirements 217
Table 165. Optical and Sub-THz Material Requirements. 218
Table 166. RIS Material Comparison 219
Table 167. Transparent Conductor Comparison 221
Table 168. Low-Loss Materials for 6G. 222
Table 169. Commercial Availability and Roadmap 222
Table 170. Low-Loss Materials SWOT for 6G 223
Table 171. Key Inorganic Compounds for 6G 223
Table 172. Elemental Materials for 6G Applications 225
Table 173. Organic Materials for 6G Applications 226
Table 174. 6G Dielectrics Market SWOT 227
Table 175. RIS Metamaterial Implementation Approaches 229
Table 176. Metamaterial Manufacturing Approaches 230
Table 177. Adaptive Beamforming Techniques. 232
Table 178. BD-RIS Architecture Comparison. 233
Table 179. RIS Manufacturing Process Options by Frequency Band. 235
Table 180. Metasurface Performance Evolution 5G to 6G 237
Table 181. Liquid Crystal Materials for 6G 238
Table 182. Metamaterials SWOT for 6G 239
Table 183. Thermal Management for 6G SWOT 245
Table 184. Graphene THz Devices Performance and Status 249
Table 185. Optical Component Requirements for 6G Fronthaul 250
Table 186. Optical and Optronic Technology Options for 6G. 253
Table 187. Phase-Change Materials for 6G Tuning 257
Table 188. MEMS vs Solid-State RF Components for 6G 260
Table 189. Solid-State Cooling Technology Comparison for 6G Applications. 262
Table 190. MIMO Technology Evolution Across Wireless Generations 263
Table 191. Massive MIMO Scaling Challenges 265
Table 192. Cell-Free Massive MIMO vs Traditional Cellular 266
Table 193. Cellular vs Cell-Free Architecture Comparison 268
Table 194. Cell-Free MIMO Deployment Challenges and Solutions 270
Table 195. MIMO Architecture Evolution Summary 270
Table 196. Zero Energy Device Vision for 6G IoT 273
Table 197. ZED-Related Technology Landscape 274
Table 198. Real-World Battery-Free Device Examples 276
Table 199. 6G Device Power Requirements and ZED Viability 277
Table 200. ZED Strategy Combination Examples 279
Table 201. 6G Technology Investment Priorities 280
Table 202. Energy Harvesting Technology Comparison 281
Table 203. ZED Technology Readiness Assessment (2025) 282
Table 204. ZED Design Target Examples by Application Class 282
Table 205. ZED System Architecture Components 283
Table 206. Energy Harvesting Enhancement Techniques 285
Table 207. Energy Storage Comparison for ZED 286
Table 208. SWOT Appraisal of Battery-Less Storage Technologies. 288
Table 209. Zero-Power Communication Methods Comparison 290
Table 210. Critical ZED Research Areas and Priorities (2025-2030) 290
Table 211. SWIPT Implementation Comparison 292
Table 212. Photovoltaic Technologies for 6G ZED 293
Table 213. Piezoelectric Harvester Comparison 296
Table 214. Thermoelectric Harvesting Scenarios 297
Table 215. Ultra-Low-Power Component Performance (2025) 300
Table 216. Hybrid Storage Device Comparison 302
Table 217. Major 6G Equipment Vendor Positioning (2025) 304
Table 218. World Radiocommunication Conference 6G Timeline 305
Table 219. National/Regional 6G Spectrum Proposals (WRC-27) 305
Table 220. Upper 6 GHz Regulatory Status by Region. 307
Table 221.NSA vs SA Deployment Comparison 308
Table 222. Open RAN Evolution - 5G to 6G 309
Table 223.Regional Open RAN Strategies for 6G 310
Table 224. European 6G Spectrum Coordination Status (2025). 311
Table 225. Major Government 6G Programs. 313
Table 226.South Korea 6G Development Timeline and Milestones 316
Table 227.Japan Beyond 5G Technology Priorities and Status 318
Table 228.6G Funding Models - International Comparison. 320
Table 229.US 6G Development - Key Programs and Participants 323
List of Figures
Figure 1. Evolution of Mobile Networks: From 1G to 6G. 26
Figure 2. Comparison between 5G and 6G wireless systems in terms of key-performance indicators. 30
Figure 3. Nokia spectrum vision in the 6G era. 40
Figure 4. 6G Systems, Materials and Standards Roadmaps 2026-2047. 55
Figure 5. Global 6G Market Forecast Summary (2026-2047). 59
Figure 6. 6G Thermal Management Market Forecast (2029-2047). 64
Figure 7. 6G Application-Specific Markets (2030-2047). 66
Figure 8. 6G Device Market Forecast by Category (2028-2047), Units. 68
Figure 9. 6G Components & Materials Market by Technology (2029-2047). 70
Figure 10. 6G Services Market (2029-2047). 71
Figure 11. 6G Healthcare Market Forecast (2030-2047). 78
Figure 12. North America 6G Market Forecast (2026-2047). 80
Figure 13. Power efficiency roadmap . 142
Figure 14. RIS-assisted wireless communication. 146
Figure 15. RIS-enabled, self-sufficient ultra-massive 6G UM-MIMO base station design. 147
Figure 16. Lumotive advanced beam steering concept. 229
Figure 17. FM/R technology. 341
Figure 18. Metablade antenna. 341
Figure 19.Millimeter-wave mobile network utilizing a radio-over-fiber system 360
Figure 20. D-Band (110 to 175 Hz) Phased-Array-on-Glass Modules from Nokia 364
Figure 21. Left) Image of beamforming using phased-array wireless device. (Right) Comparison of previously reported transmission with beamforming wireless devices. 367
Figure 22. NTT DOCOMO transparent RIS. 369
Figure 23. Radi-cool metamaterial film. 391
Figure 24. 140 GHz THz prototype from Samsung and UCSB 395
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