The Global Energy Transition Market

研究執行與發布：Future Markets　·　發布日期 2026-01-21　·　1078 頁
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The Global Energy Transition Market 2026-2036: Critical Materials, Technologies & Supply Chains

報告摘要

The global energy transition represents the most significant industrial transformation since the advent of electrification, requiring unprecedented quantities of critical materials across interconnected technology value chains. As nations accelerate toward net-zero commitments, demand for rare earth permanent magnets, electrolyzer catalyst materials, battery metals, and advanced thermal management solutions is creating both extraordinary market opportunities and acute supply chain vulnerabilities that will define competitive advantage through 2036 and beyond. Rare earth permanent magnets, particularly neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) formulations, have emerged as indispensable components for electric vehicle traction motors and direct-drive wind turbine generators. The average electric vehicle requires 1.2 to 3.8 kilograms of rare earth magnets, while offshore wind turbines utilizing direct-drive technology demand 600 to 800 kilograms per megawatt of generating capacity. With electric vehicle adoption accelerating globally and offshore wind installations expanding rapidly, rare earth magnet demand is projected to triple by 2035. However, China's dominance—controlling approximately 92% of global NdFeB magnet production and over 90% of rare earth processing capacity—creates significant supply chain concentration risk that is driving substantial investment in alternative supply development across North America, Australia, and Europe. The green hydrogen sector faces its own critical materials challenge centered on iridium, an essential catalyst for proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. Global iridium supply remains severely constrained at approximately 7 to 8 tonnes annually, almost exclusively as a byproduct of platinum mining in South Africa. This supply limitation threatens to cap PEM electrolyzer deployment despite the technology's superior performance characteristics for renewable energy integration. The electrolyzer market itself is undergoing significant consolidation, with alkaline technology capturing over 98% of current deployments due to cost advantages, while manufacturers navigate overcapacity conditions and intense price competition from Chinese producers offering systems at 30 to 40% lower cost than Western equivalents. Battery recycling and black mass recovery have transitioned from peripheral activities to strategically critical operations as lithium-ion battery deployment scales exponentially. The circular recovery of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese addresses both resource security concerns and environmental imperatives, with regulatory frameworks including the EU Battery Regulation mandating minimum recycled content requirements. Hydrometallurgical and direct recycling technologies are achieving recovery rates exceeding 95% for key metals, creating a nascent but rapidly expanding industry projected to process millions of tonnes of end-of-life batteries annually by the mid-2030s. Data center thermal management represents a convergent challenge linking energy transition to computational infrastructure, as artificial intelligence workloads drive power densities beyond air cooling capabilities. Liquid cooling technologies, including direct-to-chip and immersion cooling systems, are becoming essential for managing heat fluxes exceeding 200 watts per square centimeter in advanced semiconductor packages. The thermal interface materials market continues expanding across electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and high-performance computing applications. The interconnected nature of these markets creates compounding supply chain risks but also substantial opportunities for strategic positioning. Companies and nations that secure reliable access to critical materials while developing recycling capabilities and materials-efficient technologies will capture disproportionate value as the energy transition accelerates. Investment requirements across these sectors are measured in hundreds of billions of dollars through 2036, with policy frameworks including the US Inflation Reduction Act and EU Critical Raw Materials Act reshaping competitive dynamics and regional supply chain development priorities. This comprehensive market report provides strategic intelligence on the interconnected supply chains, emerging technologies, and market dynamics shaping the transition to net-zero economies through 2036. Spanning rare earth permanent magnets, green hydrogen electrolyzers, lithium-ion battery recycling, and advanced thermal management systems, this analysis delivers actionable insights for investors, manufacturers, policymakers, and technology developers navigating the most significant industrial transformation in modern history. Critical materials supply chains face extraordinary pressure as electric vehicle production scales globally, renewable energy installations accelerate, and data center power densities surge beyond conventional cooling capabilities. China's dominance across rare earth processing, battery materials manufacturing, and magnet production creates acute supply chain vulnerabilities that are reshaping global industrial policy and driving billions of dollars in diversification investments across North America, Europe, and Australia. This report examines the strategic implications of supply concentration, emerging alternative sources, and circular economy solutions including rare earth magnet recycling and battery black mass recovery. The rare earth permanent magnet market analysis covers NdFeB and SmCo technologies, mining and processing operations, manufacturing capacity expansion, and recycling developments. Electric vehicle traction motors and direct-drive wind turbine generators represent the dominant demand drivers, with magnet requirements projected to triple by 2035. The report profiles leading magnet manufacturers, mining companies, and innovative recycling technology developers establishing short-loop and long-loop recovery operations. Green hydrogen production via water electrolysis represents a cornerstone decarbonization pathway for hard-to-abate sectors including steel, chemicals, and heavy transport. This report provides detailed analysis of alkaline, PEM, AEM, and SOEC electrolyzer technologies, examining the market consolidation underway as overcapacity and intense price competition reshape the competitive landscape. Critical catalyst materials including iridium and platinum face severe supply constraints that may limit PEM electrolyzer deployment, driving innovation in catalyst loading reduction and non-precious metal alternatives. Lithium-ion battery recycling has transitioned from emerging opportunity to strategic imperative as regulatory frameworks mandate recycled content and end-of-life battery volumes accelerate exponentially. The report examines pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling technologies, black mass processing economics, and material recovery rates for lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and graphite. Regional recycling capacity development across China, Europe, and North America is analyzed alongside supply chain integration strategies. Advanced thermal management materials and systems address critical thermal challenges across electric vehicles, renewable energy infrastructure, semiconductor packaging, and data center cooling. The report covers thermal interface materials including greases, gap fillers, phase change materials, and carbon-based solutions, alongside liquid cooling technologies such as direct-to-chip and immersion cooling systems essential for AI accelerator thermal management. Solid-state cooling technologies including thermoelectric, magnetocaloric, and electrocaloric systems are examined for emerging applications. Report Contents Include: Rare Earth Permanent Magnets NdFeB and SmCo magnet technologies and performance comparison Global rare earth mining, processing, and refining capacity Magnet manufacturing and grain boundary diffusion technology Electric vehicle motor and wind turbine generator applications Rare earth magnet recycling technologies and capacity development Market forecasts by application, material type, and region (2026-2036) Green Hydrogen & Electrolyzer Technologies Alkaline, PEM, AEM, and SOEC electrolyzer technology analysis Electrolyzer market consolidation and competitive dynamics Critical catalyst materials: iridium supply constraints and alternatives Green hydrogen applications in steel, ammonia, and transportation Manufacturing capacity and levelized cost of hydrogen projections Market forecasts by technology and region (2026-2036) Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling technologies Black mass production, composition, and processing economics Material recovery rates for lithium, cobalt, nickel, and graphite Regulatory frameworks: EU Battery Regulation, US and China policies Recycling capacity development and supply chain integration Market forecasts (2024-2036) Thermal Management Materials & Systems Thermal interface materials: greases, pads, gap fillers, phase change materials TIMs for electric vehicles, renewable energy, and data centers Advanced semiconductor packaging thermal challenges (2.5D/3D integration) Data center liquid cooling: direct-to-chip and immersion cooling Solid-state cooling: thermoelectric, magnetocaloric, electrocaloric technologies Market forecasts by application and technology (2026-2036) Supplementary Critical Materials Lithium: extraction technologies including direct lithium extraction (DLE) Cobalt: supply concentration, ethical sourcing, reduction strategies Nickel: Class 1 vs Class 2, Indonesian expansion, HPAL processing Graphite: natural vs synthetic, spherical graphite processing Copper: EV content, renewable energy infrastructure, grid requirements Platinum group metals: iridium, platinum, palladium supply and recycling Silicon, manganese, vanadium, gallium, germanium, fluorochemicals Strategic Analysis Supply chain vulnerabilities and diversification strategies Regional market analysis: China, Europe, North America, Asia-Pacific Policy frameworks: Inflation Reduction Act, EU Critical Raw Materials Act Investment requirements and funding landscape Technology roadmaps and commercialization timelines This report features comprehensive profiles of over 300 companies spanning the critical materials value chain, including: 3M, ADA Technologies, AegiQ, AI Technology, AkkuSer Oy, Alchemr, AluChem Companies, Altris AB, American Battery Technology Company, Amprius Technologies, AMTE Power, Anyon System, Anzen Climate Wall, AOK Technologies, Aqua Metals, Arafura Resources, Arieca Inc., Ascend Elements, Asetek, Asperitas, Attero Recycling, Avantium, Aztrong Inc., Bando Chemical Industries, Barocal, BASF, Battri, BatX Energies, BlueFors, BNNT LLC, Bohr, Bostik/Arkema, Boyd Corporation, Brunp Recycling (CATL), BYD, Camfridge Ltd, Caplyzer, Carbon280, Carbice Corporation, CATL, Cellmobility, Ceres Power Holdings, Chilldyne, China Northern Rare Earth Group, Cirba Solutions, Circunomics, CoolIT Systems, CryoCoax, CSSC PERIC Hydrogen Technologies, Cummins, Custom Thermoelectric, CustomChill, Cyclic Materials, DBK Industrial, Delft Circuits, Dioxide Materials, Dow, DOWA Eco-System, Duesenfeld, DuPont, EcoPro, EIC Solutions, Elementar Hydrogen, Elkem Silicones, Elogen H2, Enevate, Enovix, Energy Fuels Inc., Engineered Fluids, Enapter, EVE Energy, Exergen, Factorial Energy, Faradion/Reliance, Ferrotec, Fortum Battery Recycling, Frore Systems, Fujipoly, Ganfeng Lithium, Ganzhou Cyclewell, GEM Co. Ltd., General Electric, Geomega Resources, Glencore, Gotion High-Tech, GRC (Green Revolution Cooling), Green Li-ion, Group14 Technologies, H2 Carbon Zero, H2B2 Electrolysis Technologies, H2Electro, H2Pro, H2Vector Energy Technologies, HALA Contec GmbH, Hamamatsu, Hamamatsu Carbonics, Hastings Technology Metals, Henkel/Bergquist, Heraeus Precious Metals, HGenium, HiNa Battery Technology, Hitachi Zosen, Honda, Honeywell, Huayou Cobalt, Huber Martinswerk, HyMet Thermal Interfaces, HyProMag, Iceotope, Indium Corporation, Infleqtion (ColdQuanta), Intel, Ionic Rare Earths/Ionic Technologies, Ionic Wind Technologies, Ionomr Innovations, ITM Power, JetCool Technologies, JL Mag Rare-Earth Co., JNC, John Cockerill, Johnson Matthey, Jones Tech, JX Nippon Mining, kiutra, Koura/Silatronix, KULR Technology Group, Kureha, Kusumoto Chemicals, Laird Performance Materials, Largo Inc., Le System Co. Ltd., Leading Edge Materials, Lepu Sodium Power, LG Chem, LG Energy Solution, Li-Cycle, Linde, LiquidCool Solutions, LISAT, LONGi Green Energy, Lynas Rare Earths, MagREEsource, Magnoric, Magnotherm, Materials Nexus, Maxwell Labs, Maybell, McPhy Energy, MIMiC Systems, Mingfa Tech, Mkango Resources, Momentive Performance Materials, Montana, Morion NanoTech, Motivair, MP Materials, Nano Tim, Nanoramic Laboratories, Nascent Materials, Natrium Energy, Natron Energy, NAWA Technologies, Nel Hydrogen, Neo Performance Materials, NeoGraf Solutions, Neometals, Neu Materials, Nickelhütte Aue, Ningbo Yunsheng, Nippon Electric Glass, Nitronix, Nolato Silikonteknik, Northern Minerals, Northvolt, NovoLinc and more

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目錄 Table of Contents

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 66 1.1 Report Scope and Objectives 67 1.2 Market Definition and Taxonomy 67 1.3 The Energy Transition Imperative 68 1.4 Critical Materials Classification Framework 69 1.5 Key Findings and Strategic Insights 69 1.6 Global Market Size and Growth Projections (2026-2036) 70 1.7 Investment Landscape Overview 71 1.8 Technology Roadmap Summary 72 1.9 Supply Chain Vulnerability Assessment 72 1.10 Regional Market Dynamics 73 2 INTRODUCTION TO THE ENERGY TRANSITION 75 2.1 The Global Decarbonization Imperative 75 2.1.1 Climate Science and the Emissions Challenge 75 2.1.2 The Net-Zero Commitment Landscape 76 2.1.2.1 Country and Regional Commitments 76 2.1.2.2 Corporate Net-Zero Commitments 77 2.1.3 The Technology Pathway to Net-Zero 78 2.2 Critical Materials: The Enabling Constraint 78 2.2.1 The Materials Intensity Paradox 78 2.2.2 Critical Materials Demand Projections 79 2.2.3 Supply-Demand Imbalances and Bottlenecks 80 2.2.3.1 Mining Development Timelines 80 2.2.3.2 Processing Capacity Concentration 80 2.2.3.3 Capital Requirements 80 2.3 The Policy Landscape: Diverging Trajectories 80 2.3.1 United States Policy Framework 81 2.3.2 European Union Policy Framework 82 2.3.3 China Policy Framework 84 2.3.4 Carbon Pricing: The Policy Foundation 85 2.4 The Geopolitics of Critical Materials 86 2.4.1 China's Dominant Position 87 2.4.2 The April 2025 Export Controls 87 2.4.3 Western Supply Chain Diversification Efforts 89 2.4.4 The Resource Nationalism Challenge 89 2.5 Technology Deployment Requirements 90 2.5.1 Electric Vehicle Deployment 90 2.5.1.1 Regional EV Market Dynamics 90 2.5.1.2 Magnet Content per Vehicle 91 2.5.2 Wind Energy Deployment 91 2.5.2.1 Wind Energy Capacity Expansion and Magnet Demand 92 2.5.3 Green Hydrogen and Electrolyzer Deployment 92 2.5.3.1 Electrolyzer Technology Mix 93 2.5.3.2 The Iridium Constraint 93 2.5.4 Battery Energy Storage Deployment 93 2.6 Critical Materials Market Interconnections 94 2.6.1 Shared Supply Chain Dependencies 94 2.6.2 Recycling as Supply Chain Integration 94 3 RARE EARTH ELEMENTS AND PERMANENT MAGNETS 95 3.1 Introduction to Rare Earth Elements 96 3.1.1 Classification and Properties 96 3.1.2 Unique Magnetic Properties 97 3.1.3 Strategic Importance and Critical Materials Designation 97 3.2 Rare Earth Permanent Magnet Technologies 98 3.2.1 Permanent Magnet Technology Comparison 98 3.2.2 Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) Magnets 99 3.2.2.1 Grade Classification System 100 3.2.2.2 Dysprosium and Terbium: The Heavy Rare Earth Challenge 101 3.2.2.3 Praseodymium Substitution 102 3.2.3 Samarium-Cobalt (SmCo) Magnets 102 3.3 Sintered Rare Earth Magnet Manufacturing 104 3.3.1 Manufacturing Process Overview 104 3.3.2 Material Flow and Efficiency 105 3.3.3 Coating Systems 106 3.4 Bonded Rare Earth Magnets 107 3.5 Rare Earth Magnet Manufacturing Innovation 108 3.5.1 Grain Boundary Diffusion Technology 108 3.5.2 Advanced Powder Processing 109 3.5.3 Rare Earth-Free Magnet Research 109 3.6 Rare Earth Supply Chain Analysis 110 3.6.1 Value Chain Overview 110 3.6.2 Geographic Distribution of Production 111 3.6.3 Chinese Dominance Analysis 112 3.7 Global Mining Production 112 3.7.1 Production by Country 113 3.7.2 Development Pipeline 114 3.8 Rare Earth Processing and Separation 114 3.8.1 Separation Technology and Challenges 115 3.8.2 Non-Chinese Processing Development 115 3.9 Metallization and Alloy Production 116 3.9.1 Metallization Processes 116 3.9.2 The Metallization Bottleneck 117 3.10 Magnet Manufacturing Capacity 117 3.10.1 Current Production Capacity 117 3.10.2 Capacity Expansion Projections 118 3.11 Rare Earth Demand Analysis 119 3.11.1 Demand by Application 119 3.11.2 Magnet Demand by End-Use Sector 119 3.12 Rare Earth Magnet Recycling 120 3.12.1 Recycling Industry Overview 120 3.12.2 Recycling Technologies 121 3.12.3 Recycling Market Projections 121 3.13 Market Size and Forecasts 122 3.13.1 Global Market Size 122 3.13.2 Price Dynamics 122 3.14 Strategic Analysis and Market Outlook 123 3.14.1 Key Market Drivers 123 3.14.2 Risk Assessment 124 3.14.3 Strategic Outlook Summary 124 4 GREEN HYDROGEN AND ELECTROLYZER TECHNOLOGIES 126 4.1 Introduction to Green Hydrogen 126 4.1.1 Hydrogen Classification and Production Methods 126 4.1.2 The Economics of Green Hydrogen: Market Reality Check 127 4.1.3 Current Global Hydrogen Demand 128 4.2 Electrolyzer Technologies 129 4.2.1 Technology Overview and Competitive Dynamics 130 4.2.2 Alkaline Water Electrolyzers (AWE) 131 4.2.2.1 Technology Evolution and Architecture Advances 131 4.2.2.2 Chinese Manufacturing Dominance 132 4.2.2.3 Cost Structure Analysis 133 4.2.3 Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers (PEMEL) 134 4.2.3.1 The PEM Paradox: Superior Performance, Limited Adoption 135 4.2.3.2 The Iridium Constraint: A Fundamental Ceiling 135 4.2.3.3 PEM Niche Applications 136 4.2.4 Anion Exchange Membrane Electrolyzers (AEMEL) 137 4.2.5 Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cells (SOEC) 138 4.3 Electrolyzer Cost Evolution and Market Dynamics 139 4.3.1 Cost Trajectory Analysis 139 4.3.2 Manufacturing Capacity and Utilization 140 4.4 Green Hydrogen Applications and Demand Outlook 141 4.4.1 Application Success and Failure Assessment 141 4.4.2 Priority Industrial Applications 142 4.4.2.1 Petroleum Refining: Regulatory-Driven Adoption 142 4.4.2.2 Ammonia Production: Maritime Fuel as Growth Catalyst 143 4.4.2.3 Steel Production: H-DRI Technology Advancement 143 4.5 Market Size and Regional Dynamics 144 4.5.1 Global Market Projections 144 4.5.2 Regional Market Analysis 145 4.5.3 Technology Mix Evolution 146 4.6 Investment Requirements and Policy Framework 147 4.6.1 Investment Requirements Analysis 147 4.6.2 Policy Framework Analysis 148 4.7 Strategic Outlook and Critical Uncertainties 148 4.7.1 Scenario Analysis 149 4.7.2 Critical Success Factors 149 4.7.3 Market Risk Assessment 150 5 LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES AND CRITICAL MATERIALS 152 5.1 Battery Market Overview 152 5.1.1 Battery Technology Fundamentals 152 5.1.2 Li-ion Battery Pack Demand by Application 152 5.1.3 Electric Vehicle Battery Market 153 5.1.4 Energy Storage Systems (ESS) 154 5.1.5 Consumer Electronics 155 5.1.6 Regional Manufacturing Capacity 155 5.2 Battery Cathode Materials 156 5.2.1 Cathode Chemistry Evolution 156 5.2.2 Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC) 156 5.2.2.1 NMC 532, 622, 811 Compositions 157 5.2.2.2 High-Nickel Development 157 5.2.3 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) 157 5.2.3.1 Cost Advantages 158 5.2.3.2 LMFP Development 158 5.2.4 Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) 158 5.2.5 Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA) 159 5.2.6 Cathode Material Supply Chain 159 5.3 Battery Anode Materials 160 5.3.1 Graphite Anode Technologies 160 5.3.2 Natural vs. Synthetic Graphite 160 5.3.2.1 Supply Chain Concentration 161 5.3.3 Silicon Anode Integration 161 5.3.3.1 Silicon Nanowires 161 5.3.3.2 Silicon-Graphite Composites 162 5.3.3.3 Silicon Oxide (SiOx) 162 5.3.4 Lithium Metal Anodes 162 5.3.5 Advanced Anode Materials 163 5.4 Battery Electrolytes and Separators 163 5.4.1 Liquid Electrolytes 163 5.4.2 Solid Electrolytes 164 5.4.3 Separator Technologies 164 5.5 Critical Materials in Batteries 165 5.5.1 Lithium 165 5.5.2 Cobalt 165 5.5.3 Nickel 166 5.5.4 Manganese 166 5.5.5 Graphite 166 5.6 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 167 6 NEXT-GENERATION BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES 168 6.1 Solid-State Batteries 168 6.1.1 Technology Overview 168 6.1.2 Solid Electrolyte Materials 169 6.1.2.1 Oxide Electrolytes 170 6.1.2.2 Sulfide Electrolytes 170 6.1.2.3 Polymer Electrolytes 171 6.1.3 Performance Advantages 172 6.1.3.1 Energy Density Improvement 172 6.1.3.2 Safety Improvement 172 6.1.3.3 Cycle Life and Calendar Life 173 6.1.4 Manufacturing Challenges 173 6.1.4.1 Interfacial Contact and Resistance 173 6.1.4.2 Electrolyte Manufacturing 174 6.1.5 Commercialization Timeline 174 6.2 Semi-Solid-State Batteries 176 6.3 Sodium-Ion Batteries 177 6.3.1 Technology Overview 177 6.3.2 Cathode Materials 178 6.3.2.1 Layered Oxides 179 6.3.2.2 Prussian Blue Analogues 179 6.3.2.3 Polyanionic Compounds 179 6.3.3 Anode Materials (Hard Carbon) 180 6.3.4 Cost Advantages 181 6.3.5 Applications and Market Potential 181 6.4 Other Emerging Technologies 182 6.4.1 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 183 6.4.2 Aluminum-Ion Batteries 183 6.4.3 Sodium-Sulfur Batteries 184 6.5 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 184 7 LITHIUM-ION BATTERY RECYCLING 187 7.1 Market Overview and Drivers 187 7.1.1 Recycling Drivers 187 7.1.1.1 Resource Security 187 7.1.1.2 Environmental Benefits 188 7.1.1.3 Economic Viability 188 7.1.2 Battery Waste Streams and Volumes 189 7.1.2.1 End-of-Life Batteries 190 7.1.2.2 Manufacturing Scrap 190 7.1.2.3 Consumer Electronics 190 7.2 Recycling Technologies 190 7.2.1 Pyrometallurgy 191 7.2.1.1 Advantages of Pyrometallurgy 191 7.2.1.2 Limitations of Pyrometallurgy 192 7.2.2 Hydrometallurgy 192 7.2.2.1 Advantages of Hydrometallurgy 193 7.2.2.2 Limitations of Hydrometallurgy 193 7.2.3 Direct Recycling 193 7.2.3.1 Advantages of Direct Recycling 194 7.2.3.2 Limitations of Direct Recycling 194 7.2.4 Hybrid Approaches 195 7.2.4.1 Spoke-Hub Model 195 7.2.4.2 Integrated Production Models 195 7.2.5 Technology Comparison 195 7.3 Black Mass Production and Processing 197 7.3.1 Black Mass Composition 197 7.3.2 Processing Economics 198 7.3.3 Trade and Export Considerations 199 7.3.3.1 Regulatory Considerations 199 7.4 Material Recovery by Component 199 7.4.1 Lithium Recovery 200 7.4.1.1 Hydrometallurgical Lithium Recovery 200 7.4.2 Cobalt Recovery 200 7.4.3 Nickel Recovery 201 7.4.4 Manganese Recovery 201 7.4.5 Graphite Recovery 202 7.5 Recycling Different Cathode Chemistries 202 7.5.1 LCO Recycling 202 7.5.2 LMO Recycling 203 7.5.3 NMC Recycling 203 7.5.4 LFP Recycling 204 7.5.5 NCA Recycling 204 7.6 Supply Chain Integration 205 7.6.1 Collection Networks 205 7.6.2 Sorting and Pre-treatment 205 7.6.3 Integration with Battery Manufacturing 206 7.7 Regulatory Frameworks 206 7.7.1 EU Battery Regulation 207 7.7.2 US State-Level Requirements 207 7.7.3 China Battery Recycling Policies 208 7.8 Recycling Capacity Development 208 7.9 Market Forecasts (2024-2034) 209 8 THERMAL INTERFACE MATERIALS (TIMs) 211 8.1 Market Overview and Drivers 211 8.1.1 TIM Technology Fundamentals 211 8.1.2 Comparative Properties of TIMs 213 8.2 TIM Technology Classification 214 8.2.1 Thermal Greases, Gels & Pastes 214 8.2.2 Thermal Pads 215 8.2.3 Gap Fillers 215 8.2.4 Phase Change Materials (PCMs) 216 8.2.5 Thermal Adhesives 217 8.2.6 Potting Compounds/Encapsulants 218 8.2.7 Metal-Based TIMs 219 8.2.8 Carbon-Based TIMs (Graphene, CNT) 220 8.2.8.1 Graphite Sheets 220 8.2.8.2 Graphene TIMs 220 8.2.8.3 Carbon Nanotube TIMs 220 8.3 Performance Characteristics 221 8.3.1 Thermal Conductivity Requirements 221 8.3.2 System Level Performance Factors 222 8.3.3 Pricing Analysis 223 8.4 TIMs for Electric Vehicles 223 8.4.1 Battery Thermal Management 224 8.4.1.1 Cell-to-Pack Designs 224 8.4.1.2 Cell-to-Chassis Configurations 226 8.4.2 Power Electronics Cooling 227 8.4.2.1 TIM Selection for Power Electronics 227 8.4.3 EV Charging Infrastructure 227 8.4.4 Market Size and Forecasts 228 8.5 TIMs for Renewable Energy 229 8.5.1 Solar Inverter Applications 229 8.5.2 Wind Power Electronics 230 8.5.3 Energy Storage Systems 230 8.5.4 Market Forecasts 231 8.6 TIMs for Data Centers 231 8.6.1 Server Thermal Management 232 8.6.2 Power Supply Units 232 8.6.3 Backup Battery Units 233 8.6.4 Market Forecasts 233 8.7 TIMs in ADAS Sensors 234 8.8 Market Forecasts (2022-2036) 235 9 DATA CENTER THERMAL MANAGEMENT AND LIQUID COOLING 238 9.1 Data Center Power Density Trends 238 9.1.1 AI Accelerator Cooling Requirements 238 9.1.2 Air Cooling Limitations 239 9.1.2.1 Thermodynamic Limitations 239 9.1.2.2 Air Cooling Efficiency Degradation 240 9.1.2.3 The Inflection Point 240 9.2 Liquid Cooling Technologies 241 9.2.1 Direct-to-Chip (D2C) Liquid Cooling 241 9.2.1.1 D2C Market Position 242 9.2.2 Immersion Cooling 243 9.2.2.1 Single-Phase Immersion Cooling 243 9.2.2.2 Two-Phase Immersion Cooling 244 9.2.3 Rear-Door Heat Exchangers 245 9.2.4 Cold Plate Hybrid Systems 246 9.3 Rack-Level Power Limitations 246 9.4 Cooling Fluids and Dielectric Materials 248 9.4.1 Mineral Oils 248 9.4.2 Synthetic Fluids 249 9.4.3 Fluorocarbon Fluids 249 9.4.4 Hydrocarbon-Based Fluids 250 9.5 TIMs for Immersion Cooling 251 9.5.1 Chemical Compatibility 251 9.5.2 Thermal Stability 252 9.5.3 Surface Wettability 252 9.5.4 Environmental Considerations 253 9.6 Liquid Cooling Market Forecasts 253 9.7 Heat Recovery and Reuse Systems 255 9.8 Energy Efficiency Considerations 256 9.8.1 Free Cooling Potential 256 10 THERMAL MANAGEMENT FOR ADVANCED SEMICONDUCTOR PACKAGING 258 10.1 Advanced Packaging Evolution 258 10.1.1 2.5D Integration 259 10.1.1.1 Thermal Characteristics of 2.5D 259 10.1.1.2 HBM Thermal Constraints 259 10.1.2 3D Integration 260 10.1.3 Chiplet Architectures 261 10.1.3.1 Die Height Variation Challenge 261 10.2 Thermal Challenges in High-Density Packaging 262 10.2.1 Primary Thermal Challenges 262 10.3 Heat Flux Density Trends (>200 W/cm²) 263 10.4 Package-Level Thermal Solutions 264 10.4.1 Integrated Heat Spreaders 264 10.4.1.1 Vapor Chamber IHS 265 10.4.1.2 Multi-Die IHS Challenges 265 10.4.2 Thermal Vias 266 10.4.2.1 Through-Silicon Vias (TSVs) 266 10.4.3 Embedded Cooling Channels 267 10.4.3.1 IHS with Embedded Channels 267 10.5 Advanced TIM Requirements 267 10.5.1 Multi-Die TIM Strategies 268 10.5.2 Reliability Requirements 269 10.6 Chip-Level Cooling Approaches 269 10.6.1 Microfluidic Cooling 269 10.6.1.1 Two-Phase Microfluidic Cooling 271 10.6.2 Thermoelectric Cooling Integration 271 10.7 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 273 11 SOLID-STATE COOLING TECHNOLOGIES 276 11.1 Market Overview 276 11.2 Established vs. Emerging Technologies 277 11.3 Value Chain Analysis 279 11.4 Thermoelectric (Peltier) Cooling Systems 280 11.4.1 Technology Maturity and Market Penetration 281 11.4.2 Thermoelectric Materials 282 11.4.2.1 Bismuth Telluride Materials 283 11.4.2.2 Non-Toxic and Lower-Cost Alternatives 284 11.4.3 Performance Characteristics and Limitations 285 11.4.4 Applications 287 11.4.5 Market Size 289 11.5 Magnetocaloric Cooling 290 11.5.1 Technology Principles and Development Status 290 11.5.2 Commercial Applications 293 11.6 Performance Advantages and Challenges 295 11.7 Electrocaloric Cooling 296 11.7.1 Technology Fundamentals and Material Systems 296 11.7.2 Current Development Stage and Commercialization Timeline 299 11.7.3 Market Potential and Applications 299 11.8 LED-Based Thermophotonic Cooling 300 11.8.1 Principles 300 11.8.2 Technical Specifications and Performance Parameters 302 11.8.3 Advantages Over Conventional Methods 302 11.8.4 Technology Readiness Level 303 11.8.5 Manufacturing Cost Analysis 304 11.8.6 Temperature Range Capabilities 304 11.9 Phononic Cooling Systems 304 11.9.1 Solid-State Phonon Manipulation Principles 305 11.9.2 Technology Approach and Development Status 305 11.9.3 Market Positioning and Commercial Potential 306 11.10 Barocaloric and Elastocaloric Cooling 307 11.11 Quantum Cryogenic Cooling 308 11.11.1 Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigeration (ADR) 308 11.11.2 Continuous ADR (cADR) Systems 310 11.11.3 Dilution Refrigerators 310 11.11.4 Quantum Cooling Requirements 311 11.12 Advanced Thermionic Cooling 312 11.13 Performance Benchmarking 313 11.13.1 Cross-Technology Comparison 313 11.13.2 Technology Roadmap 314 11.14 Market Forecasts by Technology 315 11.15 Market Forecasts by End User 316 11.16 Regional Market Analysis 316 11.17 Application Segmentation 317 11.17.1 Cryogenic Applications (sub-100K) 317 11.17.2 Ultra-Low Temperature Applications (100-150K) 317 11.17.3 Moderate Cooling Applications (>150K) 318 11.17.4 Semiconductor Sensor Cooling 318 11.17.5 Consumer Electronics Thermal Management 319 11.17.6 Automotive Thermal Systems 319 11.18 Price Performance Evolution 319 11.19 Market Drivers and Growth Catalysts 320 11.20 Customer Needs Assessment 321 12 SUPPLEMENTARY CRITICAL MATERIALS 324 12.1 Lithium 324 12.1.1 Global Lithium Supply and Demand 324 12.1.2 Lithium Extraction Technologies 325 12.1.2.1 Hard Rock Mining (Spodumene) 326 12.1.2.2 Brine Extraction (Salar) 326 12.1.2.3 Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) 327 12.1.2.4 Geothermal Lithium Extraction 327 12.1.2.5 Clay-Based Lithium Extraction 328 12.1.3 Battery-Grade Lithium Production 329 12.1.3.1 Lithium Carbonate (Li₂CO₃) 329 12.1.3.2 Lithium Hydroxide (LiOH) 329 12.1.3.3 Conversion Technologies 330 12.1.4 Geographic Supply Concentration 330 12.1.4.1 Australia (Hard Rock) 331 12.1.4.2 Chile and Argentina (Brine) 331 12.1.4.3 China (Processing Dominance) 332 12.1.4.4 Emerging Sources (US, Europe, Africa) 332 12.2 Price Trends and Projections 333 12.2.1 Recycling and Secondary Supply 334 12.2.2 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 334 12.3 Cobalt 336 12.3.1 Global Cobalt Market Overview 336 12.3.2 Supply Concentration (DRC) 336 12.3.2.1 Democratic Republic of Congo Mining 337 12.3.2.2 Indonesian Supply Growth 338 12.3.2.3 Australian and Philippine Sources 338 12.3.3 Cobalt Reduction Strategies 339 12.3.3.1 High-Nickel Cathode Development 339 12.3.3.2 LFP Adoption 340 12.3.3.3 Cobalt-Free Cathodes 340 12.3.4 Recycling Potential 341 12.3.5 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 341 12.4 Nickel 342 12.4.1 Battery-Grade Nickel Demand 342 12.4.2 Class 1 vs. Class 2 Nickel 343 12.4.2.1 Class 1 (High Purity) Requirements 343 12.4.2.2 Class 2 Production Methods 344 12.4.2.3 High-Pressure Acid Leaching (HPAL) 344 12.4.3 Indonesian Supply Expansion 344 12.4.3.1 Indonesian Processing Capacity 344 12.4.3.2 Chinese Investment in Indonesia 345 12.4.3.3 Environmental Concerns 345 12.4.4 Environmental Considerations 346 12.4.4.1 Carbon Intensity of Production 346 12.4.4.2 Tailings Management 346 12.4.4.3 Deep-Sea Mining Proposals 347 12.4.5 Nickel Sulfate Production 347 12.4.6 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 347 12.5 Graphite 348 12.5.1 Natural vs. Synthetic Graphite 348 12.5.2 Natural Graphite Sources 348 12.5.3 Synthetic Graphite Production 349 12.5.4 Performance Comparison 349 12.5.5 Supply Chain Concentration (China) 350 12.5.5.1 Chinese Mining Dominance 350 12.5.5.2 Chinese Processing Capacity 350 12.5.5.3 Export Restrictions Impact 351 12.5.6 Spherical Graphite Processing 351 12.5.6.1 Purification Requirements 351 12.5.6.2 Spheroidization Process 352 12.5.6.3 Coating Technologies 352 12.5.7 Anode Material Applications 352 12.5.8 Alternative Supply Development 353 12.5.8.1 North American Projects 353 12.5.8.2 European Supply Chain 353 12.5.8.3 African Resources 354 12.5.9 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 354 12.6 Copper 355 12.6.1 Copper in Energy Transition Applications 355 12.6.2 EV Copper Content 355 12.6.2.1 Battery Electric Vehicles (60-80 kg) 355 12.6.2.2 Charging Infrastructure 356 12.6.2.3 Electric Motors and Wiring 356 12.6.3 Renewable Energy Infrastructure 356 12.6.3.1 Solar PV Systems 356 12.6.3.2 Wind Turbines 357 12.6.3.3 Inverters and Balance of System 357 12.6.4 Grid Infrastructure Requirements 357 12.6.4.1 Transmission Lines 357 12.6.4.2 Distribution Networks 357 12.6.4.3 Transformers and Substations 358 12.6.5 Supply Constraints and Development 358 12.6.5.1 Chilean Production 358 12.6.5.2 Peruvian Expansion 358 12.6.5.3 Declining Ore Grades 358 12.6.5.4 New Project Pipeline 359 12.6.6 Copper Recycling 359 12.6.7 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 360 12.7 Silicon 360 12.7.1 Solar-Grade Silicon (Polysilicon) 360 12.7.1.1 Siemens Process 360 12.7.1.2 Fluidized Bed Reactor Process 361 12.7.1.3 Chinese Production Dominance 361 12.7.2 Battery Anode Silicon 361 12.7.2.1 Silicon Nanopowders 361 12.7.2.2 Silicon-Carbon Composites 362 12.7.2.3 Pre-lithiation Technologies 362 12.7.3 Semiconductor-Grade Silicon 362 12.7.3.1 Electronic-Grade Purity 362 12.7.3.2 Wafer Manufacturing 363 12.7.4 Supply Chain Analysis 363 12.7.5 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 363 12.8 Platinum Group Metals (PGMs) 364 12.8.1 Platinum Applications 364 12.8.1.1 Fuel Cells 364 12.8.1.2 Automotive Catalysts 364 12.8.1.3 Industrial Applications 364 12.8.2 Palladium Markets 365 12.8.3 Iridium for Electrolyzers 365 12.8.3.1 PEM Electrolyzer Requirements 365 12.8.3.2 Supply Constraints 365 12.8.3.3 Iridium Loading Reduction 365 12.8.4 Ruthenium and Rhodium 366 12.8.5 Recycling and Secondary Supply 366 12.8.5.1 Automotive Catalyst Recycling 366 12.8.5.2 Electronics Recycling 366 12.8.5.3 Industrial Catalyst Recovery 366 12.8.6 South African Supply Concentration 366 12.8.7 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 367 12.9 Manganese 367 12.9.1 Battery Applications 367 12.9.1.1 NMC Cathode Materials 368 12.9.1.2 LMO Batteries 368 12.9.1.3 LMFP Development 368 12.9.2 High-Purity Manganese Sulfate 368 12.9.3 Global Supply Analysis 368 12.9.4 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 368 12.10 Vanadium 369 12.10.1 Vanadium Redox Flow Batteries (VRFBs) 369 12.10.1.1 Technology Overview 369 12.10.1.2 Grid-Scale Storage Applications 369 12.10.1.3 Long-Duration Storage Benefits 369 12.10.2 Vanadium Electrolyte Production 369 12.10.3 Supply Sources 370 12.10.4 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 370 12.11 Gallium and Germanium 370 12.11.1 Semiconductor Applications 370 12.11.1.1 GaN Power Electronics 370 12.11.1.2 GaAs Photovoltaics 370 12.11.1.3 Infrared Optics 371 12.11.2 Chinese Export Restrictions 371 12.11.3 Alternative Supply Development 371 12.11.4 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 371 12.12 Boron 372 12.12.1 NdFeB Magnet Applications 372 12.12.2 Specialty Glass and Ceramics 372 12.12.3 Supply Sources 372 12.12.4 Market Forecasts 372 12.13 Fluorine and Fluorochemicals 373 12.13.1 Battery Electrolyte Applications 373 12.13.1.1 LiPF₆ Production 373 12.13.1.2 Fluorinated Solvents 373 12.13.1.3 PVDF Binders 373 12.13.2 Fluoropolymer Membranes 373 12.13.2.1 Nafion and PEM Membranes 373 12.13.2.2 Fuel Cell Applications 373 12.13.2.3 Refrigerant Transitions (HFCs to HFOs) 374 12.13.2.4 Supply Chain Analysis 374 12.13.2.5 Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 374 12.14 Phosphorus 374 12.14.1 LFP Battery Applications 374 12.14.2 Fertilizer Competition 375 12.14.3 Supply Sources 375 12.14.4 Market Forecasts 376 12.15 Bismuth Telluride 376 12.15.1 Thermoelectric Applications 376 12.15.2 Supply Sources 377 12.15.3 Alternative Materials Development 377 12.15.4 Market Forecasts 378 12.16 Titanium 379 12.16.1 Electrolyzer Applications 379 12.16.1.1 PEM Bipolar Plates 379 12.16.1.2 Coatings and Components 379 12.16.2 Aerospace Applications 379 12.16.3 Supply Chain Analysis 380 12.16.3.1 Market Forecasts 380 12.17 Indium 381 12.17.1 Transparent Conductive Oxides (ITO) 381 12.17.2 Solar Cell Applications 381 12.17.3 Thermal Interface Materials 381 12.17.4 Supply Sources 382 12.17.5 Market Forecasts 383 13 REGIONAL MARKET ANALYSIS 387 13.1 China 387 13.1.1 Market Position and Scale 387 13.1.2 Policy Framework 387 13.1.3 Competitive Dynamics 388 13.1.4 Challenges and Risks 388 13.2 Europe 389 13.2.1 Market Position and Capabilities 389 13.2.2 Policy Framework 389 13.2.3 Competitive Position 390 13.3 North America 390 13.3.1 Market Position and Capabilities 390 13.3.2 Policy Framework 391 13.3.3 Competitive Position 391 13.4 Asia-Pacific (ex-China) 392 13.4.1 Japan 392 13.4.2 South Korea 392 13.4.3 Australia 393 13.4.4 Southeast Asia 393 13.4.5 India 393 13.5 Rest of World 394 13.5.1 South America 394 13.5.2 Middle East and North Africa 394 13.5.3 Sub-Saharan Africa 394 14 TECHNOLOGY ROADMAPS 396 14.1 Rare Earth Magnets Technology Roadmap 396 14.1.1 Current Technology Baseline (2024-2025) 398 14.1.2 Near-Term Technology Evolution (2025-2028) 399 14.1.3 Medium-Term Technology Evolution (2028-2032) 402 14.1.4 Long-Term Technology Trajectory (2032-2040+) 404 14.1.5 Application-Specific Considerations 405 14.1.6 Investment Requirements and Risk Factors 407 14.2 Green Hydrogen Technology Roadmap 408 14.2.1 Current Technology Baseline (2024-2025) 410 14.2.2 Near-Term Technology Evolution (2025-2028) 411 14.2.3 Medium-Term Technology Evolution (2028-2032) 414 14.2.4 Long-Term Technology Trajectory (2032-2040+) 416 14.2.5 Critical Material Considerations 418 14.2.6 Application Development and Demand Growth 419 14.2.7 Investment Requirements and Regional Strategies 421 14.3 Battery Technologies Roadmap 422 14.3.1 Current Technology Baseline (2024-2025) 424 14.3.2 Near-Term Technology Evolution (2025-2028) 425 14.3.3 Medium-Term Technology Evolution (2028-2032) 428 14.3.4 Long-Term Technology Trajectory (2032-2040+) 430 14.3.5 Manufacturing Scale and Investment 431 14.4 Thermal Management Roadmap 432 14.4.1 Current Technology Baseline (2024-2025) 434 14.4.2 Near-Term Technology Evolution (2025-2028) 435 14.4.3 Medium-Term Technology Evolution (2028-2032) 437 14.4.4 Long-Term Technology Trajectory (2032-2040+) 439 14.5 Recycling Technologies Roadmap 440 14.5.1 Current Technology Baseline (2024-2025) 442 14.5.2 Near-Term Technology Evolution (2025-2028) 444 14.5.3 Medium-Term Technology Evolution (2028-2032) 446 14.5.4 Long-Term Technology Trajectory (2032-2040+) 448 14.5.5 Regional Regulatory Frameworks 449 14.5.6 Investment and Infrastructure Requirements 450 15 COMPANY PROFILES 451 15.1 RARE EARTH MINING AND PROCESSING COMPANIES 451 (14 company profiles) 15.2 RARE EARTH MAGNET MANUFACTURERS 465 (12 company profiles) 15.3 RARE EARTH RECYCLING COMPANIES 478 (12 company profiles) 15.4 ELECTROLYZER MANUFACTURERS – ALKALINE 490 (25 company profiles) 15.5 ELECTROLYZER MANUFACTURERS – PEM 511 (25 company profiles) 15.6 ELECTROLYZER MANUFACTURERS – AEM 530 (14 company profiles) 15.7 ELECTROLYZER MANUFACTURERS - SOEC 543 (7 company profiles) 15.8 OTHER ELECTROLYZER AND HYDROGEN COMPANIES 548 (12 company profiles) 15.9 BATTERY RECYCLING COMPANIES 557 (109 company profiles) 15.10 BATTERY MATERIALS AND CELL MANUFACTURERS 633 (410 company profiles) 15.11 SOLID-STATE COOLING COMPANIES 939 (25 company profiles) 15.12 THERMAL INTERFACE MATERIALS COMPANIES 967 (116 company profiles) 16 APPENDICES 1052 16.1 Appendix A: Glossary of Terms 1052 16.2 Appendix B: Acronyms and Abbreviations 1056 16.3 Appendix C: Methodology 1060 16.4 Appendix D: Regulatory Framework Summary 1061 17 REFERENCES 1069

圖表清單 List of Tables & Figures

List of Tables Table 1. Critical Materials Classification by Supply Risk and Economic Importance 69 Table 2. Global Energy Transition & Critical Materials Market Size Summary (2026-2036) 70 Table 3. Investment Requirements by Sector (US$ Billions) 71 Table 4. Technology Readiness Levels for Key Energy Transition Technologies 72 Table 5. Supply Chain Vulnerability Assessment by Material 73 Table 6. Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector (2024) 76 Table 7. Major Economy Net-Zero Commitments and Implementation Status 77 Table 8. Materials Intensity Comparison: Clean Energy vs. Fossil Fuel Technologies 79 Table 9. Critical Materials Demand Growth Projections (2020-2040, Net-Zero Scenario) 80 Table 10. US Policy Framework for Critical Materials 82 Table 11. EU Policy Framework for Energy Transition and Critical Materials 84 Table 12. China Policy Framework Comparison 85 Table 13. Global Carbon Pricing Mechanisms and Green Hydrogen Implications (2025) 86 Table 14. Chinese Control of Critical Materials Supply Chains (2025) 87 Table 15. Government Supply Chain Diversification Investments (2023-2030) 89 Table 16. Global Electric Vehicle Market Projections (2024-2036) 90 Table 17. Regional Vehicle Electrification Penetration and Growth Projections 90 Table 18. Electric Vehicle Rare Earth Magnet Content by Vehicle Type 91 Table 19. Wind Turbine Technology and Rare Earth Magnet Requirements 91 Table 20. Global Green Hydrogen Market Projections 92 Table 21. Electrolyzer Technology Comparison and Market Share 93 Table 22. Global Battery Energy Storage Deployment Projections 93 Table 23. Critical Materials Application Matrix 94 Table 24. Battery Recycling Impact on Primary Material Demand 94 Table 25. Rare Earth Element Classification and Critical Applications 96 Table 26. Critical Rare Earth Elements for Magnet Applications 98 Table 27. Permanent Magnet Technology Performance Comparison 99 Table 28. NdFeB Magnet Alloy Composition and Function 100 Table 29. NdFeB Magnet Grade Performance and Applications 100 Table 30. Detailed NdFeB Grade Specifications 101 Table 31. Dysprosium Addition Effects on NdFeB Magnet Properties 101 Table 32. SmCo Magnet Properties and Applications 103 Table 33. NdFeB versus SmCo Comparative Analysis 103 Table 34. Sintered NdFeB Magnet Manufacturing Process Stages 104 Table 35. Rare Earth Value Chain Material Recovery Rates 106 Table 36. NdFeB Magnet Coating Systems Comparison 106 Table 37. Bonded versus Sintered NdFeB Magnet Comparison 107 Table 38. Bonded Magnet Manufacturing Process Comparison 107 Table 39. Grain Boundary Diffusion Technology Impact 108 Table 40. Alternative Magnet Technologies Under Development 109 Table 41. Rare Earth Magnet Value Chain Stages 111 Table 42. Geographic Distribution of Rare Earth Supply Chain (2025) 111 Table 43. Key Global Rare Earth Separation Companies and Market Positioning 112 Table 44. Global Rare Earth Mining Production by Country (2024-2025) 113 Table 45. Major Rare Earth Mining Projects Under Development 114 Table 46. Global Rare Earth Separation Capacity by Company 115 Table 47. Non-Chinese Processing Capacity Projections 116 Table 48. Metallization Process Comparison 117 Table 49. Global Rare Earth Magnet Production Capacity (2025) 117 Table 50. Projected Regional Capacity Development 2025-2036 118 Table 51. Rare Earth Demand by Application (2025) 119 Table 52. Rare Earth Magnet Demand by Application (2026-2036) 119 Table 53. Recycling Technology Comparison Matrix 121 Table 54. Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Market Projections 121 Table 55. Global Rare Earth Magnet Market Size Projections 122 Table 56. Rare Earth Oxide Price Volatility (2020-2025) 122 Table 57. Rare Earth Magnet Market Drivers Assessment 123 Table 58. Rare Earth Magnet Market Risk Matrix 124 Table 59. Hydrogen Classification by Color Code and Production Method 127 Table 60. Green Hydrogen Cost Evolution: Projections Versus Reality 128 Table 61. Global Hydrogen Demand by Application (2024) 129 Table 62. Electrolyzer Technology Comparison: Technical and Commercial Status (2024) 130 Table 63. Alkaline Electrolyzer Architecture Evolution 132 Table 64. Major Alkaline Electrolyzer Manufacturers: Global Comparison 133 Table 65. Alkaline Electrolyzer Cost Breakdown: Chinese versus Western Manufacturers (2024) 134 Table 66. Levelized Cost of Hydrogen: Alkaline versus PEM Comparison 135 Table 67. Iridium Supply Constraint versus PEM Scaling Requirements 136 Table 68. Electrolyzer Technology Selection by Application Type 136 Table 69. AEM Competitive Positioning versus Established Technologies 137 Table 70. SOEC Commercial Viability Assessment 138 Table 71. Electrolyzer Technology Cost Projections: 2024 to 2036 139 Table 72. Global Electrolyzer Manufacturing Capacity and Utilization 140 Table 73. Green Hydrogen Application Viability Assessment 141 Table 74. Refinery Green Hydrogen Project Development 142 Table 75. Green Ammonia Market Development: Fertilizer versus Maritime Applications 143 Table 76. Green Steel Project Development Status 144 Table 77. Global Green Hydrogen Market Projections: 2024-2036 145 Table 78. Green Hydrogen Regional Market Dynamics (2024-2036) 145 Table 79. Electrolyzer Technology Market Share Evolution 146 Table 80. Cumulative Green Hydrogen Investment Requirements (2024-2036) 147 Table 81. Major Green Hydrogen Policy Mechanisms by Region 148 Table 82. Green Hydrogen Market Scenario Analysis 149 Table 83. Critical Success Factors for Green Hydrogen Development 149 Table 84. Green Hydrogen Market Risk Assessment 150 Table 85. Li-ion Battery Pack Demand by Application (GWh), 2019-2036 153 Table 86. Li-ion Battery Pack Demand for xEV (GWh), 2019-2036 153 Table 87. Li-ion Battery Market Value for xEV (US$B), 2019-2036 154 Table 88. ESS Market Segmentation 154 Table 89. Regional Battery Manufacturing Capacity (GWh) 155 Table 90. Cathode Material Comparison (NMC, LFP, NCA, LCO) 156 Table 91. NMC Composition Comparison 157 Table 92. High-Nickel Cathode Stabilization Technologies 157 Table 93. LFP vs NMC Cost Comparison 158 Table 94. LMFP Characteristics 158 Table 95. LCO Specifications 159 Table 96. NCA Specifications 159 Table 97. Cathode Material Supply Chain Concentration 160 Table 98. BEV Car Cathode Forecast (GWh), 2019-2036 160 Table 99. Anode Material Comparison (Graphite, Silicon, Lithium Metal) 161 Table 100. Graphite Supply Chain Concentration 161 Table 101. Silicon-Graphite Composite Evolution 162 Table 102. BEV Anode Forecast (GWh), 2019-2036 162 Table 103. Advanced Anode Materials Market Forecasts 163 Table 104. Lithium Supply and Demand. 165 Table 105. Nickel Supply by Source 166 Table 106. Demand for Manganese for Batteries 166 Table 107. Graphite Supply and Demand. 167 Table 108. Battery Materials Cost Evolution and Competitiveness 167 Table 109. Battery Materials Market Summary (2026-2036) 167 Table 110. Solid-State vs. Conventional Li-ion Architecture: 169 Table 111. Solid-State Battery Electrolyte Comparison (Oxide, Sulfide, Polymer) 169 Table 112. Oxide Electrolyte Characteristics 170 Table 113. Sulfide Electrolyte Characteristics 171 Table 114. Polymer Electrolyte Characteristics 171 Table 115. Solid-State Energy Density Potential 172 Table 116. Performance Comparison Summary 173 Table 117. Manufacturing Process Development 173 Table 118. Cost Reduction Pathway 174 Table 119. Solid-State Battery Market Forecasts (GWh), 2019-2036 174 Table 120. Commercialization Milestones by Developer 175 Table 121. Market Penetration Projections 176 Table 122. Semi-Solid Battery Characteristics 176 Table 123. Semi-Solid Battery Market Forecast 177 Table 124. Sodium-Ion vs. Lithium-Ion Comparison 177 Table 125. Layered Oxide Cathode Characteristics 179 Table 126. Prussian Blue Analog Characteristics 179 Table 127. Polyanionic Cathode Comparison 180 Table 128. Hard Carbon Characteristics 180 Table 129. Hard Carbon Production Routes 180 Table 130. Cost Comparison: Sodium-Ion vs Lithium-Ion 181 Table 131. Sodium-Ion Battery Market Forecasts (GWh and US$ Billions) 181 Table 132. Application Suitability Assessment 182 Table 133. Key Market Participants 182 Table 134. Lithium-Sulfur Characteristics 183 Table 135. Aluminum-Ion Characteristics 183 Table 136. High-Temperature Sodium-Sulfur Characteristics 184 Table 137. Next-Generation Battery Market Summary (2026-2036) 185 Table 138. Market Share of Total Battery Demand 185 Table 139. Technology Positioning by Application (2036) 185 Table 140. Resource Security Value of Recycling 188 Table 141. Environmental Comparison: Recycled vs. Primary Materials 188 Table 142. Recycling Economics by Cathode Chemistry 189 Table 143. Battery Feedstock Projections by Source (kt) 189 Table 144. Pyrometallurgy Characteristics 191 Table 145. Key Pyrometallurgical Recyclers 192 Table 146. Hydrometallurgy Characteristics 193 Table 147. Key Hydrometallurgical Recyclers 193 Table 148. Direct Recycling Process Schematic 194 Table 149. Direct Recycling Characteristics 194 Table 150. Direct Recycling Developers 195 Table 151. Common Hybrid Configurations 195 Table 152. Recycling Methods Comparison (Pyro vs Hydro vs Direct) 196 Table 153. Typical Li-ion Battery Recycling Process Flow 196 Table 154. Black Mass Composition by Battery Chemistry 198 Table 155. Black Mass Processing Economics 198 Table 156. Black Mass Trade Flows 199 Table 157. Lithium Recovery Processes 200 Table 158. Cobalt Recovery Processes 200 Table 159. Material Recovery Rates by Recycling Method 202 Table 160. Graphite Recovery Approaches 202 Table 161. LCO Recycling Characteristics 202 Table 162. LMO Recycling Characteristics 203 Table 163. NMC Recycling Characteristics by Composition 203 Table 164. LFP Recycling Characteristics 204 Table 165. LFP Recycling Approaches 204 Table 166. NCA Recycling Characteristics 204 Table 167. Collection Channel Comparison 205 Table 168. Pre-treatment Process Steps 206 Table 169. Battery Recycling Supply Chain Participants 206 Table 170. EU Battery Regulation Requirements 207 Table 171. US State Recycling Requirements 208 Table 172. China Battery Recycling Regulations and Policies 208 Table 173. Li-ion Battery Recycling Capacity by Region 208 Table 174. Investment Trends 209 Table 175. Global Li-ion Battery Recycling Market Size (2024-2034) 209 Table 176. Market Value Components 209 Table 177. Thermal Interface Function 212 Table 178. Thermal conductivities (κ) of common metallic, carbon, and ceramic fillers employed in TIMs 212 Table 179. Commercial TIMs and their properties 213 Table 180. Thermal Grease Characteristics 214 Table 181. Thermal Pad Characteristics 215 Table 182. Gap Filler Characteristics 216 Table 183. Phase Change Material Characteristics 216 Table 184. Thermal Adhesive Characteristics 217 Table 185. Potting Compound Characteristics 218 Table 186. Metal TIM Characteristics 219 Table 187. Advantages and disadvantages of TIMs, by type 220 Table 188. Carbon-Based TIM Comparison 221 Table 189. Materials by Thermal, Mechanical, and Application Properties 221 Table 190. Key Factors in System Level Performance for TIMs 222 Table 191. Thermal interface materials prices 223 Table 192. Battery TIM Functions 224 Table 193. CTP TIM Requirements 225 Table 194. TIM Application in EV Battery Packs 225 Table 195. CTC TIM Requirements 226 Table 196. Power Electronics TIM Applications 227 Table 197. Charging Station TIM Requirements 228 Table 198. Global TIM Market in Electric Vehicles (2022-2036) by Type 228 Table 199. TIM Content per Vehicle 229 Table 200. Solar Inverter TIM Applications 229 Table 201. TIMs in Wind Power Electronics 230 Table 202. Wind TIM Requirements 230 Table 203. TIMs in Energy Storage Systems 231 Table 204. ESS TIM Content 231 Table 205. Global TIM Market in Renewable Energy (2022-2036) 231 Table 206. PSU TIM Applications 232 Table 207. TIMs in BBU 233 Table 208. Global TIM Market in Data Centers (2022-2036) 233 Table 209. ADAS Sensor TIM Applications and Requirements 234 Table 210. TIM Company Competitive Analysis for ADAS Applications 234 Table 211. ADAS TIM Market 235 Table 212. Global TIM Market Summary by End Market 235 Table 213. Global TIM Market by Product Type 235 Table 214. Regional Market Distribution (2024 vs. 2036) 236 Table 215. Competitive Landscape 236 Table 216. Power Density Evolution 238 Table 217. AI Accelerator Power Consumption 238 Table 218. System-Level Power 239 Table 219. D2C System Characteristics: 242 Table 220. Single-Phase Immersion Characteristics 243 Table 221. Liquid Cooling Technology Comparison 244 Table 222. Two-Phase Characteristics: 244 Table 223. RDHx Characteristics 245 Table 224. Hybrid Cooling System Performance Comparison 246 Table 225. Rack-Level Power Limitations by Cooling Technology 246 Table 226. Mineral Oil Characteristics 248 Table 227. Synthetic Fluid Characteristics 249 Table 228. Immersion Cooling Fluid Comparison 249 Table 229. Engineered Hydrocarbon Characteristics 250 Table 230. Compatibility Considerations 251 Table 231. Thermal Stability Requirements 252 Table 232. Wettability Considerations 252 Table 233. Environmental Considerations 253 Table 234. Data Center Liquid Cooling Market Forecasts (2025-2036) 253 Table 235. D2C and Immersion Cooling Unit Forecasts 254 Table 236. Market Segmentation by End User 254 Table 237. Heat Recovery Potential by Cooling Type 255 Table 238. Economic Considerations for Heat Recovery Systems 255 Table 239. Data Center Cooling Cost Analysis 256 Table 240. Total Cost of Ownership Comparison 256 Table 241. Semiconductor Packaging Technology Evolution 258 Table 242. 2.5D Integration Characteristics: 259 Table 243. 2.5D and 3D Packaging Thermal Challenges 260 Table 244. 3D Stack Thermal Resistance Budget 261 Table 245. Chiplet Architecture Examples 261 Table 246. GPU Package Thermal Requirements (RTX 4090 to Future 3D) 262 Table 247. Heat Flux Density Evolution 263 Table 248. Implications of Increasing Heat Flux 264 Table 249. Hotspot Characteristics by Workload 264 Table 250. IHS Functions 264 Table 251. IHS Material Evolution 265 Table 252. Vapor Chamber IHS Characteristics 265 Table 253. Thermal Via Configurations 266 Table 254. TSV Thermal Performance 266 Table 255. Embedded Cooling Approaches 267 Table 256. IHS Channel Characteristics 267 Table 257. Global TIM Market in Advanced Semiconductor Packaging (2022-2036) 268 Table 258. Advanced TIM Requirements 268 Table 259. Advanced TIM Technologies for Next-Gen Packaging 268 Table 260. Microfluidic Cooling Performance Specifications 270 Table 261. Microfluidic Cooling Developers 271 Table 262. Thermoelectric Cooling Integration Specifications 271 Table 263. Thermoelectric Applications in Advanced Packaging 272 Table 264. Advanced Semiconductor Packaging Thermal Management Market: 273 Table 265. Global Solid-State Cooling Market Size (2025-2036) 277 Table 266. Established vs. Emerging Solid-State Cooling Technologies 278 Table 267. Commercial Deployment Scale 281 Table 268. Market Penetration by Application 282 Table 269. Bismuth Telluride Material Properties 283 Table 270. Manufacturing Methods 284 Table 271. Supply Chain 284 Table 272. Alternative Thermoelectric Materials 284 Table 273. Nanostructuring Approaches 285 Table 274. Thermoelectric (Peltier) Cooling Systems Performance Characteristics 286 Table 275. COP vs. Temperature Difference 286 Table 276. Comparison with Vapor Compression 287 Table 277. Application Categories 288 Table 278. Thermoelectric Market by Application (2024-2036) 289 Table 279. Magnetocaloric Material Categories 292 Table 280. Magnetocaloric Cooling Performance vs Conventional Systems 292 Table 281. Magnetocaloric Cooling Commercial Applications 293 Table 282. Magnetocaloric Cooling Performance Advantages and Challenges 295 Table 283. Efficiency Comparison in Practical Systems 295 Table 284. Electrocaloric Materials and Performance Characteristics 298 Table 285. Electrocaloric Effect Temperature Changes by Material Type 298 Table 286. Advantages of Electrocaloric vs. Magnetocaloric 299 Table 287. LED Cooling Performance Parameters and Specifications 302 Table 288. GaAs LED Performance Characteristics for Cooling Applications 302 Table 289. LED Cooling vs Thermoelectric Cooling Performance Comparison 303 Table 290. LED Cooling Technology Readiness Level and Development Status 303 Table 291. LED Cooling Manufacturing Cost Analysis ($/W basis) 304 Table 292. Cooling Temperature Range Capabilities (sub-100K to 150K) 304 Table 293. Phononic Manipulation Approaches 305 Table 294. Caloric Effect Comparison 307 Table 295. ADR Characteristics 309 Table 296. cADR Performance 310 Table 297. Dilution Refrigerator Characteristics 310 Table 298. Dilution Refrigerator Suppliers 311 Table 299. Quantum Cooling Requirements by Application 311 Table 300. Quantum Device Operating Temperature Requirements 312 Table 301. Advanced Thermionic Approaches 313 Table 302. Performance Benchmarking Matrix Across All Technologies 313 Table 303. Application Suitability Mapping and Temperature Ranges 314 Table 304. Global Solid State Cooling Market Size by Technology (2020-2036), Millions USD 315 Table 305. Global Solid State Cooling Market Size by End User Market (2020-2036) 316 Table 306. Regional Market Analysis - Revenue by Geography 2022-2036 316 Table 307. Cryogenic Applications (sub-100K) 317 Table 308. Ultra-Low Temperature Applications (100-150K) 318 Table 309. Moderate Cooling Applications (>150K) 318 Table 310. Semiconductor Sensor Solid-State Cooling 318 Table 311. Solid-State Cooling in Consumer Electronics 319 Table 312. Solid-State Cooling in Automotive Thermal Systems 319 Table 313. Price Performance Evolution by Technology Type 319 Table 314. Customer Requirements by Segment 321 Table 315. Global Lithium Supply and Demand Balance 324 Table 316. Lithium Extraction Technology Comparison 325 Table 317. Global Lithium Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 334 Table 318. Global Cobalt Supply and Demand 336 Table 319. Global Cobalt Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 341 Table 320. Global Nickel Supply by Source and Application 342 Table 321. Natural vs Synthetic Graphite Comparison 348 Table 322. Global Natural Graphite Mining Production by Country 350 Table 323. Graphite Supply Chain Concentration by Value Chain Stage 350 Table 324. Global Graphite Market Forecasts 354 Table 325. Copper Demand in Energy Transition Applications 355 Table 326. Global Copper Market Forecasts 360 Table 327. Global Silicon Supply Chain Analysis 363 Table 328. PGM Supply and Demand by Metal 366 Table 329. Global PGM Market Forecasts 367 Table 330. Global Manganese Market Forecasts 369 Table 331. Global Vanadium Market Forecasts 370 Table 332. Global Gallium and Germanium Market Forecasts 371 Table 333. Global Fluorochemicals Market Forecasts 374 Table 334. Phosphorus market forecasts for battery applications 376 Table 335. Bismuth telluride thermoelectric market forecasts 378 Table 336. Titanium market forecasts for energy transition applications 380 Table 337. Global indium market forecasts 383 Table 338. China Critical Materials Market Analysis 384 Table 339. Europe Critical Materials Market Analysis 384 Table 340. North America Critical Materials Market Analysis 385 Table 341. Asia-Pacific (ex-China) Critical Materials Market Analysis 385 Table 342. Rest of World Critical Materials Market Analysis 385 Table 343. Market Forecasts (2026-2036)-China 388 Table 344. Market Forecasts (2026-2036)-Europe 390 Table 345. Market Forecasts (2026-2036)-North America 392 Table 346. Regional Market Forecasts (2026-2036)-Asia-Pacific (ex-China) 393 Table 347. Rest of World Market Forecasts (2026-2036) 395 Table 348. Current Commercial NdFeB Magnet Performance Parameters 398 Table 349. Global Rare Earth Magnet Supply Chain Concentration (2024) 399 Table 350. Grain Boundary Diffusion Technology Evolution 400 Table 351. Timeline for Dysprosium-Free High-Temperature Magnets 401 Table 352. Non-Chinese Magnet Production Capacity Development 401 Table 353. Comparison of Magnet Technologies (Projected 2030 Status) 402 Table 354. Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Capacity Expansion 404 Table 355. Iron Nitride (Fe₁₆N₂) Development Milestones 404 Table 356. Rare Earth Magnet Industry Evolution (2024-2036) 405 Table 357. EV Traction Motor Magnet Requirements Evolution 406 Table 358. R&D Investment Requirements (2024-2036) 407 Table 359. Electrolyzer Technology Performance Comparison (2024) 411 Table 360. Alkaline Electrolyzer Technology Evolution 412 Table 361. PEM Electrolyzer Cost Reduction Pathway 413 Table 362. SOEC Development Milestones 414 Table 363. Global Electrolyzer Manufacturing Capacity 414 Table 364. Projected Electrolyzer Performance and Cost (2032) 415 Table 365. Long-Term Electrolyzer Cost Projections 417 Table 366. Long-Term Green Hydrogen Cost Projections (LCOH) 418 Table 367. Iridium Constraint Analysis for PEM Electrolyzer Scaling 418 Table 368. Green Hydrogen Application Timeline 420 Table 369. Global Hydrogen Demand by Application (Projected) 420 Table 370. Green Hydrogen Investment Requirements 421 Table 371. Current Battery Chemistry Comparison (2024) 425 Table 372. High-Nickel Cathode Development Trajectory 426 Table 373. Silicon Anode Integration Trajectory 426 Table 374. Near-Term Battery Technology Evolution Summary 427 Table 375. Solid-State Battery Technology Comparison 428 Table 376. Solid-State Battery Commercialization Timeline 429 Table 377. Solid-State Battery Performance Targets (2030-2032) 429 Table 378. Long-Term Battery Technology Trajectories 430 Table 379. Long-Term Battery Performance Projections 431 Table 380. Global Battery Manufacturing Capacity by Region 431 Table 381. Battery Industry Investment Requirements 432 Table 382. Current TIM Technology Landscape 434 Table 383. TIM Performance Evolution 436 Table 384. Data Center Cooling Evolution 436 Table 385. EV Battery Thermal Management Requirements 437 Table 386. Medium-Term TIM Performance Targets 437 Table 387. Magnetocaloric Cooling Development 438 Table 388. Solid-State Cooling Technology Comparison (2032 Projections) 438 Table 389. Data Center Cooling Technology Evolution 439 Table 390. Long-Term TIM Performance Potential 439 Table 391. Cooling Market Share Evolution 440 Table 392. Current Recycling Technology Comparison 443 Table 393. Current Material Recovery Rates by Technology 443 Table 394. Hydrometallurgical Process Evolution 444 Table 395. Direct Recycling Development Timeline 445 Table 396. Recycling Process Economics Comparison (Projected 2028) 445 Table 397. Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Capacity Expansion 446 Table 398. Closed-Loop Cathode Recycling Projections 446 Table 399. Black Mass Market Development 447 Table 400. Material Recovery Rate Evolution 447 Table 401. Recycled Content Projections 447 Table 402. Rare Earth Magnet Recycling Evolution 448 Table 403. Long-Term Material Recovery Trajectories 448 Table 404. Recycled Content Long-Term Projections 448 Table 405. Circular Economy Evolution 449 Table 406. Recycling Investment Requirements 450 Table 407. Battery Recycling Capacity Projections by Region 450 Table 408. 3DOM separator. 636 Table 409. CATL sodium-ion battery characteristics. 687 Table 410. CHAM sodium-ion battery characteristics. 692 Table 411. Chasm SWCNT products. 693 Table 412. Faradion sodium-ion battery characteristics. 732 Table 413. HiNa Battery sodium-ion battery characteristics. 768 Table 414. Battery performance test specifications of J. Flex batteries. 789 Table 415. LiNa Energy battery characteristics. 805 Table 416. Natrium Energy battery characteristics. 827 Table 417. Glossary of Terms 1052 Table 418. Acronyms and Abbreviations 1056 Table 419. Regulatory Framework Summary 1061 List of Figures Figure 1. Silicon Anode Integration Roadmap 162 Figure 2. All-Solid-State Lithium Battery Schematic 175 Figure 3. Schematic of Na-ion Battery 178 Figure 4. Pyrometallurgical Recycling Process 191 Figure 5. Hydrometallurgical Recycling Process 192 Figure 6. Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Process Flow 197 Figure 7. Cell-to-Pack Design with TIMs 225 Figure 8. Cell-to-Chassis Battery Pack Configuration 226 Figure 9. TIMs in EV batteries 228 Figure 10. Direct-to-Chip Liquid Cooling Implementation 241 Figure 11. Microfluidic Cooling Channel Design 270 Figure 12. Technology Adoption Timeline 274 Figure 13. Thermoelectric Cooling Operation 288 Figure 14. Magnetocaloric Effect 291 Figure 15. Electrocaloric Cooling 297 Figure 16. Electrocaloric Cooling Commercialization Timeline 299 Figure 17. Simple Sketch of Electroluminescent Cooling 301 Figure 18. Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigeration (ADR) Process 309 Figure 19. Advanced Thermionic Cooling Commercialization Timeline 313 Figure 20. Solid-State Cooling Technology Roadmap 315 Figure 21. Rare Earth Magnets Technology Roadmap. 398 Figure 22. Green Hydrogen Technology Roadmap 410 Figure 23. Battery Technologies Roadmap 424 Figure 24. Thermal Management Roadmap 434 Figure 25. Recycling Technologies Roadmap 442 Figure 26. Symbiotic™ technology process. 490 Figure 27. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production. 509 Figure 28. Hystar PEM electrolyser. 523 Figure 29. Alchemr AEM electrolyzer cell. 531 Figure 30. EL 2.1 AEM Electrolyser. 534 Figure 31. (AEM Nexus containerized system). 535 Figure 32. Left: a typical single-stage electrolyzer design, with a membrane separating the hydrogen and oxygen gasses. Right: the two-stage E-TAC process. 538 Figure 33. Sunfire process for Blue Crude production. 547 Figure 34. OCOchem’s Carbon Flux Electrolyzer. 555 Figure 35. 24M battery. 634 Figure 36. 3DOM battery. 636 Figure 37. AC biode prototype. 638 Figure 38. Schematic diagram of liquid metal battery operation. 650 Figure 39. Ampcera’s all-ceramic dense solid-state electrolyte separator sheets (25 um thickness, 50mm x 100mm size, flexible and defect free, room temperature ionic conductivity ~1 mA/cm). 651 Figure 40. Amprius battery products. 653 Figure 41. All-polymer battery schematic. 657 Figure 42. All Polymer Battery Module. 657 Figure 43. Resin current collector. 657 Figure 44. Ateios thin-film, printed battery. 659 Figure 45. The structure of aluminum-sulfur battery from Avanti Battery. 662 Figure 46. Containerized NAS® batteries. 665 Figure 47. 3D printed lithium-ion battery. 673 Figure 48. Blue Solution module. 674 Figure 49. TempTraq wearable patch. 675 Figure 50. Schematic of a fluidized bed reactor which is able to scale up the generation of SWNTs using the CoMoCAT process. 694 Figure 51. Carhartt X-1 Smart Heated Vest. 698 Figure 52. Cymbet EnerChip™ 702 Figure 53. E-magy nano sponge structure. 714 Figure 54. Enerpoly zinc-ion battery. 716 Figure 55. SoftBattery®. 717 Figure 56. ASSB All-Solid-State Battery by EGI 300 Wh/kg. 720 Figure 57. Roll-to-roll equipment working with ultrathin steel substrate. 722 Figure 58. 40 Ah battery cell. 732 Figure 59. FDK Corp battery. 735 Figure 60. 2D paper batteries. 743 Figure 61. 3D Custom Format paper batteries. 744 Figure 62. Fuji carbon nanotube products. 745 Figure 63. Gelion Endure battery. 748 Figure 64. Gelion GEN3 lithium sulfur batteries. 748 Figure 65. Grepow flexible battery. 760 Figure 66. HPB solid-state battery. 767 Figure 67. HiNa Battery pack for EV. 768 Figure 68. JAC demo EV powered by a HiNa Na-ion battery. 769 Figure 69. Nanofiber Nonwoven Fabrics from Hirose. 770 Figure 70. Hitachi Zosen solid-state battery. 771 Figure 71. Ilika solid-state batteries. 776 Figure 72. TAeTTOOz printable battery materials. 780 Figure 73. Ionic Materials battery cell. 784 Figure 74. Schematic of Ion Storage Systems solid-state battery structure. 785 Figure 75. ITEN micro batteries. 787 Figure 76. Kite Rise’s A-sample sodium-ion battery module. 794 Figure 77. LiBEST flexible battery. 800 Figure 78. Li-FUN sodium-ion battery cells. 802 Figure 79. LiNa Energy battery. 805 Figure 80. 3D solid-state thin-film battery technology. 807 Figure 81. Lyten batteries. 811 Figure 82. Cellulomix production process. 813 Figure 83. Nanobase versus conventional products. 814 Figure 84. Nanotech Energy battery. 825 Figure 85. Hybrid battery powered electrical motorbike concept. 828 Figure 86. NBD battery. 829 Figure 87. Schematic illustration of three-chamber system for SWCNH production. 830 Figure 88. TEM images of carbon nanobrush. 831 Figure 89. EnerCerachip. 835 Figure 90. Cambrian battery. 849 Figure 91. Printed battery. 853 Figure 92. Prieto Foam-Based 3D Battery. 854 Figure 93. Printed Energy flexible battery. 856 Figure 94. ProLogium solid-state battery. 858 Figure 95. QingTao solid-state batteries. 860 Figure 96. Schematic of the quinone flow battery. 862 Figure 97. Sakuú Corporation 3Ah Lithium Metal Solid-state Battery. 869 Figure 98. Salgenx S3000 seawater flow battery. 871 Figure 99. Samsung SDI's sixth-generation prismatic batteries. 872 Figure 100. SES Apollo batteries. 878 Figure 101. Sionic Energy battery cell. 886 Figure 102. Solid Power battery pouch cell. 889 Figure 103. Stora Enso lignin battery materials. 892 Figure 104.TeraWatt Technology solid-state battery 904 Figure 105. Zeta Energy 20 Ah cell. 937 Figure 106. Zoolnasm batteries. 938 Figure 107. Boron Nitride Nanotubes products. 977 Figure 108. Transtherm® PCMs. 978 Figure 109. Carbice carbon nanotubes. 981 Figure 110. Internal structure of carbon nanotube adhesive sheet. 997 Figure 111. Carbon nanotube adhesive sheet. 997 Figure 112. HI-FLOW Phase Change Materials. 1004 Figure 113. Thermoelectric foil, consists of a sequence of semiconductor elements connected with conductive metal. At the top (in red) is the thermal interface. 1016 Figure 114. Parker Chomerics THERM-A-GAP GEL. 1029 Figure 115. Metamaterial structure used to control thermal emission. 1030 Figure 116. Shinko Carbon Nanotube TIM product. 1039 Figure 117. The Sixth Element graphene products. 1043 Figure 118. Thermal conductive graphene film. 1044 Figure 119. VB Series of TIMS from Zeon. 1050

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